Electrical devices making use of counterdoped junctions

ABSTRACT

An electrical device includes a counterdoped heterojunction selected from a group consisting of a pn junction or a p-i-n junction. The counterdoped junction includes a first semiconductor doped with one or more n-type primary dopant species and a second semiconductor doped with one or more p-type primary dopant species. The device also includes a first counterdoped component selected from a group consisting of the first semiconductor and the second semiconductor. The first counterdoped component is counterdoped with one or more counterdopant species that have a polarity opposite to the polarity of the primary dopant included in the first counterdoped component. Additionally, a level of the n-type primary dopant, p-type primary dopant, and the one or more counterdopant is selected to the counterdoped heterojunction provides amplification by a phonon assisted mechanism and the amplification has an onset voltage less than 1 V.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Application is a continuation of International Application No.PCT/US2016/054560, filed Sep. 29, 2016; and International ApplicationNo. PCT/US2016/054560 claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patentapplication Ser. No. 62/234,578, filed on Sep. 29, 2015; each of whichis incorporated herein in its entirety.

FIELD

The present invention relates to semiconductors, and more particularly,to devices the make use of the cycling excitation process.

BACKGROUND

A variety of semiconductor applications make use of signal amplificationby mechanisms such as impact ionization. Examples of these devicesinclude, but are not limited to, transistors and photodiodes. However,the impact ionization mechanism is associated with low powerefficiencies, and noise levels that increase with amplification.Further, the noise levels of these devices can limit the scalability ofthe devices. As a result, there is a need for semiconductor applicationsthat make use of signal amplification with one or more characteristicsselected from the group consisting of: reduced noise levels, increasedpower efficiency, and scalability.

SUMMARY

An electrical device includes a counterdoped heterojunction selectedfrom a group consisting of a pn junction or a p-i-n junction. Thecounterdoped junction includes a first semiconductor doped with one ormore n-type primary dopant species and a second semiconductor doped withone or more p-type primary dopant species. The device also includes afirst counterdoped component selected from a group consisting of thefirst semiconductor and the second semiconductor. The first counterdopedcomponent is counterdoped with one or more counterdopant species thathave a polarity opposite to the polarity of the primary dopant includedin the first counterdoped component. Additionally, a level of the n-typeprimary dopant, p-type primary dopant, and the one or more counterdopantis selected to the counterdoped heterojunction provides amplification bya phonon assisted mechanism and the amplification has an onset voltageless than 1 V, 2V or 3V.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1A through FIG. 1F illustrate a variety of counterdoped junctions.

FIG. 1A is a counterdoped PN junction with a counterdoped firstsemiconductor that forms a pn junction with a second semiconductor thatis not counterdoped.

FIG. 1B illustrates a PN junction where a first semiconductor is notcounterdoped but the second semiconductor is counterdoped.

FIG. 1C illustrates a PN junction where both the first semiconductor andthe second semiconductor are counterdoped.

FIG. 1D illustrates a countedoped p-i-n heterjunction having a thirdsemiconductor between a first semiconductor and a second semiconductor.The first semiconductor is counterdoped but the second semiconductor isnot counterdoped.

FIG. 1E illustrates a countedoped p-i-n heterjunction having a thirdsemiconductor between a first semiconductor and a second semiconductor.The first semiconductor is not counterdoped but the second semiconductoris counterdoped.

FIG. 1F illustrates a countedoped p-i-n heterjunction having a thirdsemiconductor between a first semiconductor and a second semiconductor.The first semiconductor and the second semiconductor are bothcounterdoped.

FIG. 2 illustrates the current versus bias results for a series ofparallel-connected photodiodes that were fabricated as the light-sensingelement of a CMOS pixel.

FIG. 3A is a cross section of a photodiode that includes a counterdopedp-i-n junction.

FIG. 3B is an example band energy diagram for a photodiode constructedaccording to FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3C is another example band energy diagram for a photodiodeconstructed according to FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3D is another example band energy diagram for a photodiodeconstructed according to FIG. 3A.

FIG. 3E is a cross section of a photodiode that includes a counterdopedpn junction.

FIG. 3F is an example band energy diagram for a photodiode constructedaccording to FIG. 3E.

FIG. 3G is a cross section of a photodiode that includes a counterdopedpn junction in contact with a light-absorbing medium located outside ofthe junction.

FIG. 3H illustrates a photodiode according to FIG. 3A with a pinninglayer surrounding the outer edges of the photodiode and located betweenthe counterdoped junction and an optional electrical insulator.

FIG. 3I illustrates a photodiode according to FIG. 3G with a pinninglayer surrounding the outer edges of the photodiode and located betweenthe counterdoped junction and an optional electrical insulator.

FIG. 4A is a cross section of an optoelectronic device that includes thephotodiode of FIG. 3H electrically connected to the source or drain ofan NMOS transistor both made on the same active area.

FIG. 4B is a cross section of an optoelectronic device that includes thephotodiode of FIG. 3H electrically connected to the source or drain ofan NMOS transistor. The photodiode and the NMOS transistor are madeadjacent active areas separated by isolation regions/structures.

FIG. 4C is a cross section of an optoelectronic device that includes thephotodiode of FIG. 3H electrically connected to the source or drain ofan NMOS transistor. The pinning layer from the photodiode of FIG. 3H isin electrical communication with one or more secondary pinning layersincluded in a substrate on which the photodiode is positioned.

FIG. 4D is a cross section of another example of an optoelectronicdevice that includes the photodiode of FIG. 3H electrically connected tothe source or drain of an NMOS transistor. The pinning layer from thephotodiode of FIG. 3H is in electrical communication with one or moresecondary pinning layers included in a substrate on which the photodiodeis positioned.

FIG. 5A is a schematic of a Tunnel MOSFET that includes a counterdopedp-i-n heterojunction constructed according to any of the counterdopedp-i-n heterojunctions disclosed in FIG. 1D through FIG. 1F.

FIG. 5B is an example band energy diagram for an example of a TunnelMOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 5C is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 5B where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 5D through FIG. 5G show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 5A through FIG. 5C during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 5D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 5E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 5F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 5G shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 6A is an example band energy diagram for an example of a TunnelMOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 6B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 6A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 6C through FIG. 6F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 6A through FIG. 6B during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 6C shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 6D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 6E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 6F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS for VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 7A is an example band energy diagram for an example of a TunnelMOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 7B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 7A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 7C through FIG. 7F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 7A through FIG. 7B during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 7C shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 7D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 7E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 7F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 8A is an example band energy diagram for an example of a TunnelMOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 8B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 8A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 8C through FIG. 8F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 8A through FIG. 8B during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 8C shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 8D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 8E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 8F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 9A is another example band energy diagram for an example of aTunnel MOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 9B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 9A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 9C through FIG. 9F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 9A through FIG. 9B during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 9C shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 9D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 9E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 9F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 10A is another example band energy diagram for an example of aTunnel MOSFET according to FIG. 5A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 10B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 10A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 10C through FIG. 10F show qualitative band alignments for thetunnel transistor of FIG. 10A through FIG. 10B during operation of thetransistor. FIG. 10C shows the band alignments for the bias conditionsat which VDS is >0 and VGS is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 forT-PMOS.

FIG. 10D shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at whichVDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 10E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at whichVDS>0 and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 10F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at whichVDS=0 and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

FIG. 11A is a cross section of a portion of a device that includes aheterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT). The heterojunction bipolartransistor (HBT) includes a base positioned between a collector and anemitter such that charges flow between the collector and the emitterthrough the base.

FIG. 11B is a cross section of portion of a device that includes theheterojunction bipolar transistor of FIG. 11A modified such that thecollector 102 includes multiple sub-layers.

FIG. 11C is another cross section a portion of a device that includesthe heterojunction bipolar transistor of FIG. 11A modified such that thecollector 102 includes multiple sub-layers.

FIG. 11D is an example band energy diagram for an example of an HBTaccording to FIG. 11A when the electronics are not applying electricalenergy to the transistor.

FIG. 11E is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 11D where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 12A illustrates the transistor of FIG. 11B modified so as tooperate as a laser that can be an HBT-laser or a DHBT laser.

FIG. 12B is an example band energy diagram for an example of a lightsource according to FIG. 12A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 12C is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 12B where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 13A illustrates a portion of a device having a light sensor thatincludes the transistor of FIG. 11C modified to include a counterdopedp-i-n junction as the junction between the emitter and the base.

FIG. 13B is another example band energy diagram for an example of alight sensor or transistor according to FIG. 13A when the electronicsare not applying electrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 13C is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 13B where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 13D is another example band energy diagram for a light sensor ortransistor according to FIG. 13A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 13E is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 13D where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 13F illustrates the band diagram for a device such as is shown inFIG. 11C or FIG. 13A before electronics apply a bias to the HBT.

FIG. 13G illustrates the band diagram while electronics operate thelight sensor or transistor so as to perform electronic amplification.

FIG. 13H is another example band energy diagram for a light sensor ortransistor according to FIG. 13A when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor.

FIG. 13I is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bandsshown FIG. 13B where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermilevels are evident.

FIG. 14 is a cross section of a superlattice system.

DESCRIPTION

A variety of devices include one or more counterdoped junctions. Acounterdoped junction can be a p-n junction or a p-i-n junction thatincludes a p-type semiconductor that is counterdoped and/or an n-typesemiconductor that is counter doped. A p-type semiconductor is counterdoped when it is also doped with an n-type dopant and n-typesemiconductor is counter doped when it is also doped with a p-typedopant. Counter doping allows amplification to occur through a phononassisted mechanism rather than through impact ionization. The onset ofthe phonon assisted mechanism can be at unexpectedly lower voltagelevels relative to the onset of amplification through impact ionization.As a result, devices that include these junctions can have improvedpower efficiencies. Further, these junctions can provide devices withreduced noise levels. The reduced noise levels can enhance thescalability of these devices.

The p-n junctions and p-i-n junction can also be heterojunctions. Thecombination of counterdoping (or doping compensation) andheterojunctions can provide these devices with an unexpectedly largereduction in the onset voltage for amplification to occur. For instance,herojunctions can provide amplification onset at around half a volt andreach a gain of around 10,000 at only one volt. In contrast,homojunctions have produced a gain of 10,000 at three volts. Theseresults show that about nine times the power is required to producearound the same level of gain when homojunctions are used. Thecombination of counterdoping (or doping compensation) andheterojunctions can can also enable amplification in forward biaseddiodes, if the heterojunction offsets are sufficiently large such thatwhen a charge carrier, traveling perpendicularly to saidheterojunctions, acquires kinetic energy corresponding to difference inpotential energy between the two semiconductors (i.e., the band offset),that is enough to trigger the cyclic excitation process. Heterojunctionscan also spatially and/or energetically confine charge carriers toregions where counterdoping is optimized, and therefore spatiallyconfine the region of optimized gain from the cyclic excitation process.In addition, heterojunctions can also modify the phonon spectra inspatially confined regions, especially when the heterojunctions layersare strained, thereby used to optimize the phonon-assisted gainmechanism. Furthermore, heterojunctions can also be used to modify theenergy levels of the different types of doping species, and thus affectthe phonon-assisted gain of the cyclic excitation process

FIG. 1A through FIG. 1F illustrate a variety of counterdoped junctions10. For instance, FIG. 1A through FIG. 1C illustrate a variety ofcounterdoped pn heterojunctions. Each heterojunction includes a junctionbetween a first semiconductor 12 and a second semiconductor 14. Thefirst semiconductor 12 is in direct physical contact with the secondsemiconductor 14. Since the junction is a heterojunction, the firstsemiconductor 12 is different from the second semiconductor 14. Thefirst semiconductor 12 is doped so as to be an n-type semiconductor andthe second semiconductor 14 is doped so as to be a p-type semiconductor.

In FIG. 1A, the first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped but the secondsemiconductor 14 is not counterdoped. For instance, the firstsemiconductor 12 includes one or more n-type dopants as primary dopantsand one or more p-type dopants as counterdopants while the secondsemiconductor 14 includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopantsbut excludes any counterdopant. In FIG. 1B, the first semiconductor 12is not counterdoped but the second semiconductor 14 is counterdoped. Forinstance, the first semiconductor 12 includes one or more n-type dopantsas primary dopants and excludes counterdopants while the secondsemiconductor 14 includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopantsand also includes one or more n-type dopants as counterdopants. In FIG.1C, the first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped and the secondsemiconductor 14 is counterdoped. For instance, the first semiconductor12 includes one or more n-type dopants as primary dopants and one ormore p-type dopants as counterdopants while the second semiconductor 14includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopants and also includesone or more n-type dopants as counterdopants.

FIG. 1D through FIG. 1F illustrate a variety of counterdoped p-i-nheterojunctions. Each heterojunction includes a junction between a firstsemiconductor 12 and a third semiconductor 16 and also between the thirdsemiconductor 16 and a second semiconductor 14. The first semiconductor12 is in direct physical contact with the third semiconductor 16 and thethird semiconductor 16 is in direct physical contact with the secondsemiconductor 14. Since the p-i-n junction is a heterojunction, thefirst semiconductor 12 is different from the third semiconductor 16and/or the second semiconductor 14 is different from the thirdsemiconductor 16. In some instances, the first semiconductor 12 is thesame as the second semiconductor 14 but different from the thirdsemiconductor 16. In some instances, the first semiconductor 12, thesecond semiconductor 14, and the third semiconductor 16 are differentfrom one another. In some instances, the first semiconductor 12 is thesame as the third semiconductor 16 or the second semiconductor 14 is thesame as the third semiconductor 16. The first semiconductor 12 is dopedso as to be an n-type semiconductor and the second semiconductor 14 isdoped so as to be a p-type semiconductor. The third semiconductor 16 isan intrinsic semiconductor.

In FIG. 1D, the first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped but the secondsemiconductor 14 is not counterdoped. For instance, the firstsemiconductor 12 includes one or more n-type dopants as primary dopantsand one or more p-type dopants as counterdopants while the secondsemiconductor 14 includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopantsbut excludes any counterdopant. In FIG. 1E, the first semiconductor 12is not counterdoped but the second semiconductor 14 is counterdoped. Forinstance, the first semiconductor 12 includes one or more n-type dopantsas primary dopants and excludes counterdopants while the secondsemiconductor 14 includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopantsand also includes one or more n-type dopants as counterdopants. In FIG.1F, the first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped and the secondsemiconductor 14 is counterdoped. For instance, the first semiconductor12 includes one or more n-type dopants as primary dopants and one ormore p-type dopants as counterdopants while the second semiconductor 14includes one or more p-type dopants as primary dopants and also includesone or more n-type dopants as counterdopants.

Although FIG. 1A through FIG. 1F illustrates each of the junctionsemiconductors (first semiconductor 12, second semiconductor 14, orthird semiconductor 16) as a single and continuous layer of material, ajunction semiconductor can include or consist of multiple sub-layers.When a junction semiconductor includes multiple layers, each of thelayers included in the junction semiconductor is doped with the samepolarity of dopant. When a junction semiconductor that includes multiplesub-layers is counterdoped, one or more of the sub-layers included inthe junction semiconductor is counterdoped. The polarity of the primarydopant in a counterdoped sub-layer is the same as the polarity of anyother sub-layers that are included in the junction semiconductor withoutbeing counterdoped.

In FIG. 1A the first semiconductor 12, the second semiconductor 14 andthe third semiconductor 16 are shown as distinct components; however,one or more components selected from the group consisting of the firstsemiconductor 12, the second semiconductor 14 and the thirdsemiconductor 16 can be a doped region of a larger semiconductor. Forinstance, the first semiconductor 12 illustrated above may be a dopedregion of a larger semiconductor that includes or consists of the firstsemiconductor 12. Accordingly, one or more components selected from thegroup consisting of the first semiconductor 12, the second semiconductor14 and the third semiconductor 16 can be a doped region of a largersemiconductor.

The total concentration for the one or more primary dopants in asemiconductor that is not counterdoped can be a function of thefunctionality of the semiconductor in the device and other parameterssuch as the dimensions of the semiconductor, the dimensions of thesurrounding components and the electric field to be applied to thesemiconductor. Examples of the total concentration for the one or moreprimary dopants in a semiconductor that is not counterdoped includeconcentrations greater than 1.0E16 cm⁻³, 5.0E18 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³and/or less than 1.0E21 cm⁻³, 5.0E20 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³.

A suitable total concentration for the one or more primary n-typedopants in a semiconductor that is counterdoped include, but are notlimited to, concentrations around or greater than the value for thedensity of states of the conduction band of the semiconductor. Insilicon, this means the total concentration can be greater than 2.82E−19cm⁻³. A suitable total concentration for the one or more primary p-typedopants in a semiconductor that is counterdoped include, but are notlimited to, concentrations around or greater than the value for thedensity of states of the valence band of the semiconductor, which forsilicon this means values greater than 1.82E−19 cm⁻³. Accordingly, thetotal concentration for the one or more primary dopants in asemiconductor that is counterdoped include, but are not limited to,concentrations greater than 1.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E−19 cm⁻³, 1.0E18 cm⁻³,and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³. The total concentration for the one ormore counterdopants in a semiconductor that is counterdoped can be afunction of the material and/or the functionality of the semiconductorand/or other parameters such as the dimensions of the semiconductor, thedimensions of the surrounding components and the electric field to beapplied to the semiconductor. Examples of the total concentration forthe one or more counterdopants in a semiconductor that is counterdopedinclude, but are not limited to, concentrations greater than 2.0E17cm⁻³, 2.0E18 cm⁻³, or 2.0E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E20cm⁻³, or 5.0E19 cm⁻³. The total concentration of the one or morecounterdopants in a counterdoped semiconductor can be more than 0.1%, or25% and/or less than 50% of the total percentage of dopants in thecounterdoped semiconductor. The concentration of the counterdopants in acounterdoped semiconductor is less than the concentration of the primarydopant in the counterdoped semiconductor. The primary dopant in ann-type counterdoped semiconductor is an n-type dopant and the primarydopant in a p-type counterdoped semiconductor is a p-type dopant.

When a junction semiconductor includes multiple sub-layers, theconcentration of dopant or primary dopant in each sub-layer can begreater than 2.0E17 cm⁻³, 2.0E18 cm⁻³, or 2.0E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than5.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E20 cm⁻³, or 5.0E19 cm⁻³. In some instances, theconcentration of one or more components selected from a group consistingof the dopants, primary dopant, and counterdopants varies across thesemiconductor or sub-layer. For instance, one or more componentsselected from a group consisting of the first semiconductor 12, thesecond semiconductor 14, one or more sub-layers included in the firstsemiconductor 12, and one or more sub-layers included in the secondsemiconductor 14 can include a smooth gradient or a stepped gradient ofone or more dopant components selected from the group consisting ofdopant, primary dopant, and counterdopant.

The counterdoped junctions, especially heterojunctions, can havesurprisingly low voltages for onset of amplification. The onset voltagefor a counterdoped junction is the voltage at which current gain islarger than 1. Current gain, as a function of applied voltage, can bethe increase in the difference between signal current and leakagecurrent (noise current) of the junction, as a function of appliedvoltage. In some instances, onset voltage for a counterdoped junction isdetermined by measuring leakage current (noise current) for a voltageinterval, followed by measuring the signal current for the same voltageinterval, subtracting the leakage current (noise current) from thesignal current, and determining at what voltage the subtracted valuebegins to increase.

FIG. 2 illustrates the current versus bias results for a series ofparallel-connected photodiodes that were fabricated as the light-sensingelement of a CMOS pixel. The photodiodes each have a counterdoped p-i-nheterojunction. The measurements were taken by applying a reverse biasthe photodiodes and measuring the resulting photocurrent. As shown inFIG. 2, the onset of amplification occurs at around 0.5 V. Amplificationoccurring at such a surprisingly low level voltage cannot be explainedby impact ionization and is evidence of the phonon assistedamplification mechanism in heterojunction photodiodes, in which at leastone semiconductor region is an alloy of the type Si_(1-x)Ge_(x),Si_(1-y)C_(y), Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) or other Group-IV alloy and/orsuperlattices including one or more components selected from the groupconsisting of Si, Ge, C, Sn, Pb.

The onset voltage can be tuned by changing the doping profile of the oneor more counterdoped semiconductors in the counterdoped junction.Examples of changes to the doping profile include increasing ordecreasing the concentration of counterdopant in a semiconductor and/orincreasing or decreasing the concentration of primary dopant in asemiconductor. Accordingly, the onset voltage can be tuned by changingthe percentage of dopant in a semiconductor that is counterdopant. Thesechanges to dopant concentrations can be made in the first semiconductor12 and/or in the second semiconductor 14. In some instances, the onsetvoltage is tuned so as to be greater than 0.3V, 0.5V, or 0.8V and/orless than 3V, 2V or 1V. The onset voltage can be tuned by changing theheterojunction profile of the one or more counterdoped semiconductors inthe counterdoped junction. Examples of changes to the heterojunctionprofile include increasing or decreasing the conduction band offsetsand/or the valence band offsets. Accordingly, the onset voltage can betuned by changing the semiconductor composition. These changes tosemiconductor composition can be made in the first semiconductor 12and/or in the second semiconductor 14. In some instances, the onsetvoltage is tuned so as to be greater than 0.3V, 0.5V, or 0.8V and/orless than 3V, 2V or 1V.

The reduced onset voltage associated with the phonon-assisted mechanismin heterojunction photodiodes can provide more efficient photodiodes.FIG. 3A illustrates an example of a photodiode that includes acounterdoped junction on a substrate 20. FIG. 3A is a cross section of aphotodiode that includes a counterdoped p-i-n heterojunction accordingto any one of FIG. 1D through FIG. 1F. The counterdoped p-i-nheterojunction is positioned between electrical contacts 18 and can bein direct physical contact with the electrical contacts 18. Theelectrical contacts 18 can be electrical conductors such as metals andare preferably a semiconductor that is doped so as to be electricallyconductive. For instance, the electrical contacts 18 can be adegeneratively doped semiconductor. When an electrical contact 18 is adegeneratively doped semiconductor, the semiconductor can be the same asthe semiconductor that is included in the counterdoped p-i-nheterojunction and that contacts the electrical contact 18. Forinstance, the electrical contact 18 located between the substrate 20 andthe first semiconductor 12 can be the same semiconductor. Suitablesubstrates 20 include, but are not limited to, Si, Ge, and SiGe relaxedbuffer layers.

An electrical insulator 22 is positioned over the counterdoped junctionand the electrical contacts 18. Suitable electrical insulators 22include, but are not limited to, SiO₂, Si₃N₄, and HfO₂. Terminals 24extend through the insulator 22 and into contact with the one of theelectrical contacts 18. Suitable electrical contacts 18 include, but arenot limited to, silicides such as NiSi or PtSi, and metals such as Al orCu. The terminals 24 are in electrical communication with electronicsthat can apply an electrical potential to the counterdoped junction. Forinstance, the electronics can apply a reverse bias to the counterdopedjunction when the device is operated as a photodiode.

The first semiconductor 12 and/or the second semiconductor 14 can becounterdoped. The concentration of the dopant, primary dopant, and/orcounterdopant in the first semiconductor 12 and/or the secondsemiconductor 14 can be a function of the material. For instance, whenthe first semiconductor 12 is not counterdoped and is silicon, theconcentration of dopant can be from 2.0E17 cm⁻³, 5.0E20 cm⁻³, and whenthe first semiconductor 12 is not counterdoped and is germanium theconcentration of dopant can be from 1.0E17 cm⁻³, 1.0E20 cm⁻³. As aresult, examples of suitable total concentrations for the dopant orprimary dopant in the first semiconductor 12 can be greater than 1.0E17cm⁻³, 1.0E18 cm⁻³, or 1.0E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than 2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³. The concentration of the dopant or primary dopantin the second semiconductor 14 can be greater than 1.0E17 cm⁻³, 1.0E18cm⁻³, or 1.0E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than 2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19 cm⁻³, or1.0E-20 cm⁻³. When the first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped, theconcentration of counterdopant in the first semiconductor 12 can begreater than 1.0E17 cm⁻³, 1.0E18 cm⁻³, or 1.0E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³. When the second semiconductor14 is counterdoped, the concentration of counterdopant in the firstsemiconductor 12 can be greater than 1.0E17 cm⁻³, 1.0E18 cm⁻³, or 1.0E19cm⁻³ and/or less than 2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³. Thethird semiconductor 16 can be intrinsic or doped lightly enough toretain qualify as intrinsic.

In one example of a photodiode constructed according to FIG. 3A, thesecond semiconductor 14 is the same as the third semiconductor 16 butdifferent from the first semiconductor 12. For instance, the firstsemiconductor 12 can be a SiGeC alloy (includes, consists of, orconsists essentially of Si, Ge, and C), the third semiconductor 16 canbe silicon and the second semiconductor 14 can be silicon. Additionallyor alternately, the photodiode can include an n-type first semiconductor12, a p-type second semiconductor 14, and an intrinsic thirdsemiconductor 16.

When the first semiconductor 12 is a counterdoped n-type semiconductor,the second semiconductor 14 is a counterdoped p-type semiconductor, andthe third semiconductor 16 is an intrinsic semiconductor, and the secondsemiconductor 14 is the same as the third semiconductor 16 but differentfrom the first semiconductor 12; the first semiconductor 12, secondsemiconductor 14, and third semiconductor 16 can be chosen to providerelative conduction and valence bands such as are shown in FIG. 3B. Banddiagrams such as FIG. 3B often show donor states and acceptor statesthat are a product of counterdoping one or more of the semiconductors.The band diagram of FIG. 3B shows semiconductor 12 with a significantlylower (compared to thermal energy KT) conduction band edge with respectto semiconductor 16 (negative ΔEc), and negligibly higher (compared tothermal energy KT) valence band with respect to semiconductor 16(positive ΔEv). As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 3B canbe generated using first semiconductor 12 that is a counterdoped n-typeSi_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloys strained tosilicon where x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, the second semiconductor14 is a counterdoped p-type Si, the third semiconductor 16 is intrinsicsilicon, the upper electrical contact 18 is a degeneratively dopedsilicon, the lower electrical contact 18 is a degeneratively dopedp-type Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y is greater than0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloysstrained to silicon where x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to1 and y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and thesubstrate 20 is p-type silicon.

In another example of a photodiode constructed according to FIG. 3A, thefirst semiconductor 12 is the same as the third semiconductor 16 butdifferent from the second semiconductor 14. For instance, the firstsemiconductor 12 can be silicon, the third semiconductor 16 can besilicon and the second semiconductor 14 can be a SiGeC alloy.Additionally or alternately, the photodiode can include an n-type firstsemiconductor 12, a p-type second semiconductor 14, and an intrinsicthird semiconductor 16.

When the first semiconductor 12 is a counterdoped n-type semiconductor,the second semiconductor 14 is a counterdoped p-type semiconductor, andthe third semiconductor 16 is an intrinsic semiconductor, and the secondsemiconductor 14 is the same as the third semiconductor 16 but differentfrom the first semiconductor 12; the first semiconductor 12, secondsemiconductor 14, and third semiconductor 16 can be chosen to providerelative conduction and valence bands such as are shown in FIG. 3B. Banddiagrams such as FIG. 3B often show donor states and acceptor statesthat are a product of counterdoping one or more of the semiconductors.The band diagram of FIG. 3B shows semiconductor 12 with a significantlylower (compared to thermal energy KT) conduction band edge with respectto semiconductor 16 (negative ΔEc), and negligibly higher (compared tothermal energy KT) valence band with respect to semiconductor 16(positive ΔEv). As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 3B canbe generated using first semiconductor 12 that is a counterdoped n-typeSi_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloys strained tosilicon where x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, the second semiconductor14 is a counterdoped p-type Si, the third semiconductor 16 is intrinsicsilicon, the upper electrical contact 18 is a degeneratively dopedsilicon, the lower electrical contact 18 is a degeneratively dopedp-type Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y is greater than0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloysstrained to silicon where x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to1 and y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and thesubstrate 20 is p-type silicon.

In another example of a photodiode constructed according to FIG. 3A, thefirst semiconductor 12 is the same as the third semiconductor 16 butdifferent from the second semiconductor 14. For instance, the firstsemiconductor 12 can be silicon, the third semiconductor 16 can besilicon and the second semiconductor 14 can be a SiGeC alloy.Additionally or alternately, the photodiode can include an n-type firstsemiconductor 12, a p-type second semiconductor 14, and an intrinsicthird semiconductor 16.

When the first semiconductor 12 is a counterdoped n-type semiconductor,the second semiconductor 14 is a counterdoped p-type semiconductor, andthe third semiconductor 16 is an intrinsic semiconductor; the firstsemiconductor 12, second semiconductor 14, and third semiconductor 16can be chosen to provide relative conduction and valence bands such asare shown in FIG. 3D. The band diagram of FIG. 3D shows semiconductor 12with a significantly lower (compared to thermal energy KT) conductionband edge with respect to semiconductor 16 (negative ΔEc), andnegligibly higher (compared to thermal energy KT) valence band withrespect to semiconductor 16 (positive ΔEv), and semiconductor 14 with asignificantly higher (compared to thermal energy KT) valence band edgewith respect to semiconductor 16 (positive ΔEv), and negligibly lower(compared to thermal energy KT) conduction band with respect tosemiconductor 16 (negative ΔEc). As an example, a band diagram accordingto FIG. 3D can be generated when the first semiconductor 12 is acounterdoped n-type Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y)alloy strained to silicon where x is greater than 0 and less than orequal to 1 and y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, thesecond semiconductor 14 is a Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) alloy strained to siliconwhere x is greater than or equal to 0 and/or less than or equal to 1,and a Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x is greaterthan 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 and less thanor equal to 0.25, and a Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to siliconwhere x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greaterthan 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, the third semiconductor 16 isintrinsic silicon, the upper electrical contact 18 is a degenerativelydoped p-type Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, the lower electrical contact 18 is adegeneratively doped n-type Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloy strained to siliconwhere y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, andSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than 0 and less than or equalto 1 and y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and thesubstrate 20 is p-type silicon.

A photodiode can include a counterdoped pn junction. For instance, FIG.3E is a cross section of a photodiode that includes a counterdoped pnheterojunction according to any one of FIG. 1A through FIG. 1C. Thecounterdoped pn heterojunction is positioned between electrical contacts18 and can be in direct physical contact with the electrical contacts18. The electrical contacts 18 can be electrical conductors such asmetals and are preferably a semiconductor that is doped so as to beelectrically conductive. For instance, the electrical contacts 18 can bea degeneratively doped semiconductor. When an electrical contact 18 is adegeneratively doped semiconductor, the semiconductor can be the same asthe semiconductor that is included in the counterdoped pn heterojunctionand that contacts the electrical contact 18. For instance, theelectrical contact 18 located between the substrate 20 and the firstsemiconductor 12 can be the same semiconductor. Suitable substrates 20include, but are not limited to, Si, Ge, and SiGe relaxed buffer layers.

An electrical insulator 22 is positioned over the counterdoped junctionand the electrical contacts 18. Suitable electrical insulators 22include, but are not limited to, SiO₂, Si₃N₄, and HfO₂. Terminals 24extend through the insulator 22 and into contact with the one of theelectrical contacts 18. Suitable electrical contacts 18 include, but arenot limited to, silicides such as NiSi, PtSi, and metals such as Al, andCu. The terminals 24 are in electrical communication with electronicsthat can apply an electrical potential to the counterdoped junction. Forinstance, the electronics can apply a reverse bias to the counterdopedjunction when the device is operated as a photodiode.

The first semiconductor 12 and/or the second semiconductor 14 can becounterdoped. The concentration of the dopant or primary dopant in thefirst semiconductor 12 can be greater than the density of states of thesemiconductor. The density of states in the conduction band and in thevalence band are in general different. Therefore, the concentration ofthe dopant or primary dopant, also depends on whether it is n-type orp-type. Since the density of states of a semiconductor is specific to asemiconductor material, the concentration of dopant or primary dopant infirst semiconductor 12 and/or the second semiconductor 14 can be afunction of material selection, and of dopant type (p or n). Examples ofa suitable concentrations for the dopant or primary dopant in the secondsemiconductor 14 are greater than 1.0E18 cm⁻³, 1.0E19 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20cm⁻³ and/or less than 2.0E20 cm⁻³, 5.0E20 cm⁻³, or 5.0E20 cm⁻³. When thefirst semiconductor 12 is counterdoped, examples of the concentration ofcounterdopant in the first semiconductor 12 include concentrationsgreater than 0.1% or 25% and/or less than 50% of the total dopantconcentration in the first semiconductor 12. When the secondsemiconductor 14 is counterdoped, examples of the concentration ofcounterdopant in the first semiconductor 12 include concentrationsgreater than 0.1% or 25% and/or less than 50% of the total dopantconcentration in the first semiconductor 12

The second semiconductor 14 is different from the first semiconductor12. For instance, the first semiconductor 12 can be Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloysstrained to silicon where y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, and the second semiconductor 14 can be aSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x is greater than0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 and less than orequal to 0.25 and with a different composition than theSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy included in the first semiconductor 12.Additionally or alternately, the photodiode can include an n-type firstsemiconductor 12 and a p-type second semiconductor 14.

When the first semiconductor 12 is a counterdoped n-type semiconductor,the second semiconductor 14 is a counterdoped p-type semiconductor; thefirst semiconductor 12 and the second semiconductor 14 can be chosen toprovide relative conduction and valence bands such as are shown in FIG.3F. In particular, the first semiconductor 12 has a significantly lower(compared to thermal energy KT) conduction band edge with respect to thesecond semiconductor 14 (negative ΔEc), and the second semiconductor 14has a significantly higher (compared to thermal energy KT) valence bandedge with respect to semiconductor 12 (positive ΔEv). As an example, aband diagram according to FIG. 3F can be generated using firstsemiconductor 12 that is a counterdoped n-type Si_(1-y)C_(y) alloysstrained to silicon where y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, the second semiconductor 14 is acounterdoped p-type Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to siliconwhere x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greaterthan 0 and less than or equal to 0.25 with a different composition fromthe first semiconductor 12, the third semiconductor 16 is intrinsicsilicon, the upper electrical contact 18 is a degeneratively dopedSi_(1-y)C_(y) alloys strained to silicon where y is greater than 0 andless than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) where x is greaterthan 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 and less thanor equal to 0.25, the lower electrical contact 18 is degenerativelydoped Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) alloy strained to silicon where x is greater thanor equal to 0 and/or less than or equal to 1, and aSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) alloy strained to silicon where x is greater than0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 and less than orequal to 0.25, and the substrate 20 is p-type silicon.

The photodiodes of FIG. 3A through FIG. 3F can have an improvedperformance if one or more of the materials included in the counterdopedjunction is light-absorbing medium. For instance, the light-absorbingmedium can be a direct bandgap material. In some instances, thelight-absorbing medium is a direct bandgap material and is epitaxxiallycompatible with silicon. As an example, the third semiconductor 16 inFIG. 3A can be a direct bandgap material. Suitable direct band gapmaterials that are epitaxially compatible with silicon, include, but arenot limited to, superlattices that includes one or more componentsselected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, C, Sn, Pb and that arestrained to silicon surfaces, which may have crystallographicorientations other than the (100) planes, alloys and/or superlatticesthat include or consist of one or more components selected from thegroup consisting of Si, Ge, C, Sn, Pb and that are strained to siliconsurfaces, which may have crystallographic orientations other than the(100) planes, alloys and/or superlattices that include one or morecomponents selected from the group consisting of Si, Ge, C, Sn, Pb andthat are strained to silicon surfaces, which may have crystallographicorientations other than the (100) planes. Preferred direct bandgapmaterials are superlattices such as the superlattices disclosed in U.S.Patent Application Ser. No. 61/895,971, filed on Oct. 25, 2013, entitled“Superlattice Materials and Applications” and incorporated herein in itsentirety and also in PCT Patent Application PCT/US2014/057066,publication number WO 2105042610, filed on Sep. 23, 2014, entitled“Superlattice Materials and Applications,” and incorporated herein inits entirety.

The light-absorbing medium need not be included in the counterdopedjunction in order to improve the efficiency of the photodiode. Forinstance, the light-absorbing medium can contact one or more materialsincluded in the counterdoped junction. For example, the light-absorbingmedium can be outside of the counterdoped junction but in physicalcontact with the first semiconductor 12 and/or the second semiconductor14 in the above photodiodes. FIG. 3G provides an example of thephotodiode where the light-absorbing medium 28 is located outside of thecounterdoped junction but in direct contact with the counterdopedjunction. The photodiode is constructed according to FIG. 3E butincludes a light-absorbing medium 28 between the second semiconductor 14and the electrical contact 18. The light-absorbing medium 28 is indirect physical contact with the second semiconductor 14.

The photodiodes disclosed in FIG. 3A through FIG. 3G are mesa typediodes that can have at least one semiconductor that is epitaxiallygrown. As a result, edge-related leakage currents may be a relevantcontribution to the total leakage current of the diode. Edge-relatedleakage can be sharply reduced by pinning the surface Fermi Level aroundthe mesa outer surfaces of the photodiodes disclosed in FIG. 3A throughFIG. 3G. For instance, FIG. 3H illustrates a photodiode according toFIG. 3A with a pinning layer located between the counterdoped junctionand the optional electrical insulator 22. The pinning layer contacts theedges of the first semiconductor 12, the second semiconductor 14, thethird semiconductor 16 and the electrical contacts 18. As anotherexample, FIG. 3I illustrates a photodiode according to FIG. 3G with apinning layer 30 located between the counterdoped junction and theoptional electrical insulator 22. The pinning layer contacts the edgesof the first semiconductor 12, the second semiconductor 14, the thirdsemiconductor 16 and the light-absorbing medium 28. The doping of thepinning layer 30 can permit the pinning layer to provide a qualityelectrical contact to the light-absorbing medium 28. As a result, thepinning layer 30 can serve as and/or replace an electrical contact 18.

Suitable pinning layers are electrically conducting and include, but arenot limited to, a doped semiconductor. The pinning layer can be dopedwith the same polarity as the second semiconductor 14. For instance,when the second semiconductor 14 is doped so as to be a p-typesemiconductor, the pinning layer can be doped so as to be a p-typepinning layer. The concentration of dopant in the pinning layer canexceed the concentration of dopant in the second semiconductor 14. Insome instances, the pinning layer is degeneratively doped. Suitablematerials for the pinning layer include, but are not limited to, Si, Ge,random or ordered alloys of Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) where x is greater than orequal to 0 and/or less than or equal to 1, Si_(1-y)C_(y) where y isgreater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25, and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y)where x is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 1 and y is greaterthan 0 and less than or equal to 0.25.

Although the devices disclosed in the context of FIG. 3A through FIG. 3Iare disclosed in the context of a photodiode, the above devices can eachbe operated as a diode.

The devices disclosed in the context of FIG. 3A through FIG. 3I aredepicted as stand alone devices. However, integration with other devicessuch as CMOS devices, is crucial to enable the fabrication of integratedcircuits (ICs), and to enable the level of performance that makescertain functionalities possible. FIG. 4A is a cross section of anoptoelectronic device that includes the photodiode electricallyconnected to the source or drain of an NMOS transistor. This arrangementof photodiode and transistor is used in applications such as generallight sensors, CMOS image sensors, and optical transceivers.

For instance, FIG. 4A is a cross section of an optoelectronic devicethat includes the photodiode of FIG. 3H electrically connected to thesource or drain of an NMOS transistor. The device is built on asubstrate 34 having a base region 36, a first region 38, a source region42 and a drain region 44. The first region 38, a source region 42 and adrain region 44 are doped regions of the substrate 34. The source region42 and drain region 44 extend into the first region 38. Shallow trenchisolation structures 46 extend into the substrate 34. The base region36, first region 38, source region 42 and drain region 44 can each bedoped so as to be an n-type region or a p-type region. In the exampleshown in FIG. 4A, the base region 36 is doped so as to be a p-type baseregion 36, the first region 38 is doped so as to be p-type first regionand can serve as a p-well, the source region 42 is doped so as to ben-type source region 42, and the drain region 44 is doped so as to ben-type drain region 44. The concentration of dopant in the first regions38 can be greater than the dopant concentration in the base region 36.The concentration of dopant in the drain region 44 can be greater thanthe dopant concentration in the source regions 42 which can be greaterthan the dopant concentration in the first region 38. The dopantconcentration in the drain regions 44 can be sufficient to make thedrain regions 44 degenerate semiconductors. Suitable materials for thesubstrate 34 include, but are not limited to, silicon, Thick-FilmSilicon-on-Insulator (SOI), Thin-Film SOI, UltraThinFilm (UTF)-SOI,Thin-Film Germanium on Insulator (GOI or GeOI), and UltraThinFilm(UTF)-GOI, Thin-Film Silicon-Germanium on Insulator (GOI), andUltraThinFilm (UTF)-Silicon-Germanium on Insulator. Suitable materialsfor the shallow trench isolation structures 46 include, but are notlimited to, dielectric materials such as silicon oxide.

An insulator 48, gate 50, and gate insulator 52 are positioned on thesubstrate 34. The gate insulator 52 is positioned between the substrate34 and the gate 50. A counterdoped junction is positioned between thesource region 42 and a pinning layer 30. In particular, the firstsemiconductor 12, third semiconductor 16, and second semiconductor 14are between a pinning layer 30 and the substrate 34. The pinning layer30 can be in physical contact with the edges of the first semiconductor12, second semiconductor 14, and third semiconductor 16. The pinninglayer 30 and source region 42 can surround the counterdoped junction.For instance, pinning layer 30 and source region 42 can surround thefirst semiconductor 12, second semiconductor 14, and third semiconductor16.

The pinning layer 30 is doped with the same polarity as the secondsemiconductor 14. For instance, when the first region 38 is doped so asto be a p-type first region 38, the pinning layer 30 is doped so as tobe a p-type pinning layer 30. The concentration of dopant in the pinninglayer 30 can exceed the concentration of dopant in the secondsemiconductor 14. In some instances, the pinning layer 30 isdegeneratively doped.

Electrical contacts 60 are in direct physical contact with the pinninglayer 30, the gate 50, and the drain region 44. Suitable materials forthe electrical contacts 60 include, but are not limited to, silicidessuch as Nickel-Silicide. Electrical conductors 64 extend through theinsulator 22 to the electrical contacts 60. Electronics (not shown) canbe in electrical communication with the electrical conductors 64. As aresult, the electronics can apply electrical energy to the electricalconductors 64 in order to operate the device.

During operation of the device, the source region 42 functions as thelower electrical contact of the photodiode illustrated in FIG. 3H andthe pinning layer 30 functions as the upper electrical contact of thephotodiode illustrated in FIG. 3H. Accordingly, the source region 42 andthe pinning layer 30 function as the anode and cathode of thephotodiode. The electronics apply electrical energy to the electricalconductors 64 so as to form a reverse bias across the photodiode. Theelectronics can control the potential of the pinning layer 30 or thepinning layer 30 can be grounded. Electrical current flows through thephotodiode in response to the absorption of light by the thirdsemiconductor 16 which serves as a light-absorbing medium.

The source region 42, drain region 44 and gate 50 respectively act asthe source, drain, and gate of the transistor. Further, the first region38 is doped such that the portion of the first region 38 closest to thegate insulator 52 acts as the channel of the transistor. For instance,the first region 38 can include a gradient in the dopant concentrationthat allows the first region 38 to function as a retrograde well. Theelectronics can turn the transistor on and off enabling the photo-diodeto be operated in different modes as described above.

The source region 42 can be separated from the electrical contact of thephotodiode. For instance, FIG. 4B is a cross section of anoptoelectronic device that includes the photodiode of FIG. 3Helectrically connected to the source or drain of an NMOS transistor. Thesubstrate 34 includes a shallow trench isolation structure 46 locatedbetween the source region 42 and the lower electrical contact 18 of thephotodiode. Additionally, the substrate 34 includes a second region 70in contact with the first region 38, the source region 42 and the lowerelectrical contact. The second region is doped so as to be n-type secondregion and can serve as an n-well. The second region provides aconductive pathway under the shallow trench isolation structure 46 thatis located between the source region 42 and the lower electrical contact18. As a result, the second region provides electrical communicationbetween the source region 42 and the lower electrical contact 18.

The device shown in FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B can be modified to have thepinning layer 30 in electrical communication with one or more secondarypinning layers 74 included in the substrate 34. For instance, FIG. 4Cillustrates the device of FIG. 4A modified so the substrate 34 includesa secondary pinning layer 74 in contact with pinning layer 30 andlocated between the first region 38 and the shallow trench isolationstructure 46. The substrate 34 includes another secondary pinning layer74 in contact with pinning layer 30 and the source region 42. Thepinning layer 30, the one or more secondary pinning layers 74 and sourceregion 42 can surround the counterdoped junction. For instance, thepinning layer 30, the one or more secondary pinning layers 74 and sourceregion 42 can surround the first semiconductor 12, second semiconductor14, and third semiconductor 16. The one or more secondary pinning layers74 can be doped regions of the substrate 34. When the one or moresecondary pinning layers 74 are a doped region of the substrate 34, thedopant can have the same polarity as the pinning layer 30.

As another example, FIG. 4D illustrates the device of FIG. 4B modifiedso the substrate 34 includes a secondary pinning layer 74 in contactwith the pinning layer 30, a shallow trench isolation structure 46, andelectrical contact. The substrate 34 includes another secondary pinninglayer 74 in contact with pinning layer 30, a shallow trench isolationstructure 46, and the source region 42. The pinning layer 30, the one ormore secondary pinning layers 74 and electrical contact 18 can surroundthe counterdoped junction. For instance, the pinning layer 30, the oneor more secondary pinning layers 74 and electrical contact 18 cansurround the first semiconductor 12, second semiconductor 14, and thirdsemiconductor 16. The one or more secondary pinning layers 74 can bedoped regions of the substrate 34. When the one or more secondarypinning layers are a doped region of the substrate 34, the dopant canhave the same polarity as the pinning layer 30.

In FIG. 4C and FIG. 4D, the pinning layer 30 is in electricalcommunication with the one or more secondary pinning layers 74. As aresult, the voltage of the pinning layer 30 and one or more secondarypinning layers 74 can be set by applying a voltage to the one or moresecondary pinning layers 74. Accordingly, the electrical conductor 64and electrical contact 60 connected to the top pinning layers 30 asshown in FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B is not included in the device of FIG. 4Cand FIG. 4D. In FIG. 4C and FIG. 4D, the electrical contacts 60 and theelectrical conductors 64 are optional, and the potential of the pinninglayer 30 can be set through the contact with substrate pinning layer 74.

The devices of FIG. 4A through FIG. 4D are more efficient as a result ofthe reduced onset voltage of the counterdoped junction. Suitable onsetvoltages for the counterdoped junction in these devices can be less than3V, 1V, or 0.5V and/or greater than 0.1V, 0.2V, or 0.3V.

The integration of the photodiodes with CMOS devices as shown in FIG. 4Aenables the fabrication of integrated circuits (ICs) and the levels ofperformance that makes certain functionalities possible. For instance,the close integration of the photodiodes in CMOS Image Sensors (CIS)with the MOSFETs keeps parasitic capacitances low enough to allow a highconversion efficiency of charge to voltage. Without this extremely tight(monolithic) integration of the photodiode and the MOSFETs, theperformance of CIS would be significantly lower. Therefore, CIS is agood exemplary case to illustrate the integration of CEP-SAM-PPDTherefore, CIS is a good exemplary case to illustrate the integration ofCEP-SAM-PPD (Cyclic Excitation Process—Separate Absorption andMultiplication Pinned Photo-Diode) devices with conventional CMOSdevices.devices with conventional CMOS devices.

Although the device of FIG. 4A through FIG. 4D include the photodiode ofFIG. 3H, any of the photodiodes and/or counterdoped junctions of FIG. 3Athrough FIG. 3G can be substituted for the photodiode and/orcounterdoped junctions of FIG. 3A through FIG. 3G.

The use of counter doped junctions can also provide transistors such astunnel transistors with an increased amplification current. FIG. 5A is aschematic of a Tunnel MOSFET that includes a counterdoped p-i-nheterojunction constructed according to any of the counterdoped p-i-nheterojunctions disclosed in FIG. 1D through FIG. 1F. The counterdopedp-i-n heterojunction is positioned between electrical contacts and canbe in direct physical contact with the electrical contacts. Theelectrical contacts can be electrical conductors such as metals and arepreferably a semiconductor that is doped so as to be electricallyconductive. For instance, the electrical contacts can be adegeneratively doped semiconductor. When an electrical contact is adegeneratively doped semiconductor, the semiconductor can be the same asthe semiconductor that is included in the counterdoped p-i-nheterojunction and that contacts the electrical contact.

The counterdoped junction includes a third semiconductor 16, firstsemiconductor 12 and second semiconductor 14 arranged such that duringoperation of the transistor charges flow between the first semiconductor12 and the second semiconductor 14 through the third semiconductor 16.The third semiconductor 16 is located between the first semiconductor 12and the second semiconductor 14. The third semiconductor 16 can be indirect physical contact with both the first semiconductor 12 and thesecond semiconductor 14. The first semiconductor 12 can be the source,the second semiconductor 14 can be the drain, and the thirdsemiconductor 16 can be the channel. The first semiconductor 12 is dopedso as to be an n-type semiconductor or a counterdoped n-typesemiconductor and/or the second semiconductor 14 is doped so as to be ap-type semiconductor or a counterdoped p-type semiconductor with atleast the first semiconductor 12 or the second semiconductor 14 beingcounterdoped. The third semiconductor 16 can be intrinsic. Thecounterdoped junction can be a heterojunction. As a result, only two ofthe semiconductors selected from the group consisting of the firstsemiconductor 12, the second semiconductor 14 and the thirdsemiconductor 16 can be the same. The band alignments of FIG. 5B throughFIG. 10F can be achieved when the first semiconductor 12, the secondsemiconductor 14 and the third semiconductor 16 are different from oneanother.

A gate insulator 82 is positioned between a gate electrode 86 and thethird semiconductor 16. The gate insulator 82 can also optionally bepositioned between the first semiconductor 12 and the gate electrode 86and/or between the gate electrode 86 and the second semiconductor 14. Insome instances, the gate insulator 82, gate electrode 86, and thirdsemiconductor 16 are arranged in a sandwich or the gate insulator 82 andgate electrode 86 surround the third semiconductor 16. The Suitablematerials for the gate insulator 82 include, but are not limited todielectric materials such as silicon oxide, Si-oxynitride, High-Kmetal-oxide and metal-oxynitride materials such as Hf-oxide, Al-oxide,and metal-alloy oxides, such as HfAl-oxide, and HfAlZr-oxide. Suitablematerials for the gate electrode 86 include, but are not limited toelectrically conducting materials such as highly-doped poly-silicon,metals such as Al, Cu, etc, which can be interfaced directly with thegate insulator, or can be deposited on a barrier metal(s) which ispositioned in-between the gate oxide and the gate electrode 86. “Barriermetal(s)”, such as TiN, TiSiN, TaN, WN, and others, can be used toengineer the work function that strongly impacts the threshold voltage(VT) of the tunnel transistor, in addition to providing aphysio-chemical barrier to reduce the chance of chemical reactionsbetween the metal gate electrode 86 and the gate insulator 82.

The concentration of the dopant or primary dopant in the firstsemiconductor 12 can be greater than 2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20cm⁻³, and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E21 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20 cm⁻³. Theconcentration of the dopant or primary dopant in the secondsemiconductor 14 can be greater than 2.0E19 cm⁻³, 5.0E19 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20cm⁻³, and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E21 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20 cm⁻³. Whenthe first semiconductor 12 is counterdoped, the concentration ofcounterdopant in the first semiconductor 12 can be greater than 1.0E19cm⁻³, 2.5.0E19 cm⁻³, or 1.0E20 cm⁻³, and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³,1.0E21 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20 cm⁻³. When the second semiconductor 14 iscounterdoped, the concentration of counterdopant in the firstsemiconductor 12 can be greater than 1.0E19 cm⁻³, 2.5.0E19 cm⁻³, or1.0E20 cm⁻³, and/or less than 5.0E20 cm⁻³, 1.0E21 cm⁻³, or 2.0E20 cm⁻³.The third semiconductor 16 can be intrinsic.

A terminal 24 is in electrical communication with each of the electricalcontacts. For instance, a different terminal 24 can be in directphysical contact with each of the electrical contacts. Suitableterminals 24 include, but are not limited to, silicides such as NiSi orPtSi, and metals such as Al or Cu. The terminals 24 are in electricalcommunication with electronics that can apply an electrical potential tothe counterdoped junction. Electronics (not shown) can be in electricalcommunication with each of the terminals 24 and can be configured toapply electrical energy to the terminals 24 in order to operate thetransistor. In some instances, the onset voltage of the counterdopedjunction is tuned so as to be greater than 0V, 0.1V, or 0.2V and/or lessthan 0.5V, 1V or 3V.

Tunnel transistors are generally associated with very low off-statecurrents. While the low off-state current is desirable, these samedevices are also associated with undesirably low on-state currents. Forinstance, the on-state currents of tunnel transistors are generally twoto three orders of magnitude lower than the on-state currents ofconventional thermionic MOSFETs. The reduced onset voltage associatedwith the counterdoped junction can increase the on-state currents of thetunnel transistor. For instance, prior tunnel transistors generally donot operate at an operating voltage of less than 0.2 V; however, thereduced onset voltage allows the transistor to operate at less than 0.2V. The operating voltage can be the voltage of the power supply and isusually designated as VDD. All functionality of the transistor takesplace with voltages that are equal or less than the operating voltage.For tunnel MOSFETs, the operating voltage can be decreased by tuning anumber of parameters such as the engineering of the source to channeltunnel junction. Here heterojunctions enable the lowering of the barrierheight for tunneling, which in turn enables the lowering of the voltagenecessary to induce significant tunneling through that barrier. This isan example of how heterojunctions produce advantages over homojunctionsof less than 0.2 V; however, the reduced onset voltage allows thetransistor to operate at less than 0.2 V. The operational voltage of thetransistor can be tuned by engineering of the heterojunction tunnelingbarrier between source and channel, as well as by the gate insulator andelectrode which control the tunneling barrier thickness, as a functionof voltage applied to the gate.

The lowered operational voltage that is possible with the tunnel MOSFETresults from the ability to modulate the tunneling probability, ofinjecting of carriers from source to channel and drain, by thining thetunneling barrier through the voltage applied at the gate. Because alinear variation on the thickness of the barrier causes an exponentialvariation on tunneling probability, it is then possible to module largevariations in current flowing from source to drain with a fairly smallvoltage. Another important factor to lower the operating voltage is thedecrease in barrier height for band-to-band tunneling. Heterojunctionscan lower this barrier height with respect to homojunctions. Inhomojunctions, the tunneling barrier height is the band-gap of thematerial used for the source and channel regions. In heterojunctions,the tunneling barrier height from source to drain depends on the bandoffsets or alignments between the source and channel materials. Forexample, for NMOS devices, having a p-type doped source and an n-typedoped drain, the barrier height for charge injection from the source tothe channel is given by the difference between the conduction band edgeof the channel and the valence band edge of the source. Conversely, forPMOS, having a n-type doped source and p-type doped drain, the barrierheight for charge injections from the source to the channel is given bythe difference of the valence band edge of the channel and theconduction band edge of the source. Additionally, band offsets can bestrategically placed along the path from source to drain, as to impartkinetic energy to charge carriers when the carriers cross theheterojunctions. As a result, the first semiconductor 12, secondsemiconductor 14, and third semiconductor 16 and the associated dopinglevels can be selected to provide band offsets that allow the chargecarriers to acquire kinetic energy from crossing interfaces in additionto the kinetic energy acquired from the applied electric field. Theincreased kinetic energy from interface crossing can be sufficient tocompensate for any loss in kinetic energy that results from the loweringof the applied electric field as a result of the reduced operationalvoltage.

The material selection and doping can be such that the energy of theconduction band drops or remains constant when electrons cross theinterface from the second semiconductor 14 to the third semiconductor 16and again when crossing the interface from the third semiconductor 16 tothe first semiconductor 12. Additionally or alternately, the energy ofthe valence band decreases or remains constant when holes cross theinterface from the first semiconductor 12 to the third semiconductor 16and again when crossing the interface from the third semiconductor 16 tothe second semiconductor 14. For instance, the material selection anddoping can be selected to provide a band diagram according to FIG. 5Bwhen the electronics are not applying electrical energy to thetransistor. FIG. 5C is a more realistic version of the valence andconduction bands shown FIG. 5B where the effects of the materialinterfaces and Fermi levels are evident. The energy of the conductionbands decrease at each interface when moving from the secondsemiconductor 14 to the first semiconductor 12 and the energy of thevalence bands increase at each interface when moving from the firstsemiconductor 12 to the second semiconductor 14.

The transistor of FIG. 5A through FIG. 5C can function as PMOS and/or asNMOS depending only on the applied voltage.

FIG. 5D through FIG. 5G show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 5A through FIG. 5C during operation of thetransistor. For instance, FIG. 5D shows the band alignments for the biasconditions at which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source) is >0and VGS (voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for a T-NMOS, orVDS<0 and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 5E shows the bandalignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOSor VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 5F shows theband alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0 and VGS=0 forT-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 5Gshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

The material and doping in the transistor of FIG. 5A can also beselected such that the energy level of the third semiconductor 16decreases when moving from the second semiconductor 14 to the firstsemiconductor 12. For instance, the material and doping can also beselected to provide a band diagram according to FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B.FIG. 6A represents the band diagram when the electronics are notapplying electrical energy to the transistor. FIG. 6B is a morerealistic version of the valence and conduction bands shown FIG. 6Awhere the effects of the material interfaces and Fermi levels areevident. The energy level of the conduction band and the valence bandfor the third semiconductor 16 decreases when moving from the secondsemiconductor 14 to the first semiconductor 12. However, the energy ofthe conduction bands decrease at each interface when moving from thesecond semiconductor 14 to the first semiconductor 12 and the energy ofthe valence bands increase at each interface when moving from the firstsemiconductor 12 to the second semiconductor 14. The decrease in theenergy of the valence band and the conduction band for the thirdsemiconductor 16 can be caused by joining together two differentsemiconductor materials, which are joined precisely to achieve thiseffect. This decrease may be advantageous because the decrease inpotential energy can be converted into kinetic energy of the changecarrier when it crosses the heterojunction, and may acquire enoughenergy to subsequently induce a phonon-assisted impurity-scatteringevent that leads to charge carrier multiplication (i.e., current gain atlow voltage).

FIG. 6C through FIG. 6F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B during operation of the transistor.For instance, FIG. 6C shows the band alignments for the bias conditionsat which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source) is >0 and VGS(voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 6D shows the bandalignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOSor VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 6E shows theband alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0 and VGS>0 forT-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 6Fshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

In some instances, the third semiconductor 16 in the transistor of FIG.5A includes more than one layer of material. For instance, the materialand doping can also be selected to provide a band diagram according toFIG. 7A and FIG. 7B. FIG. 7A represents the band diagram when theelectronics are not applying electrical energy to the transistor. FIG.7B is a more realistic version of the valence and conduction bands shownFIG. 7A where the effects of the material interfaces and Fermi levelsare evident. The third semiconductor 16 includes a first portion and asecond portion. The first portion is between the second portion and thesecond semiconductor 14 and the second portion is between the firstportion and the first semiconductor 12.

The first portion can be constructed of a different material than thesecond portion. As is evident from FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B, the materialsand doping is selected such that energy of the conduction bands decreaseat each interface when moving from the second semiconductor 14 to thefirst semiconductor 12 and the energy of the valence bands increase ateach interface when moving from the first semiconductor 12 to the secondsemiconductor 14. Constructing the third semiconductor 16 from multipledifferent layers can be advantageous because having multipleheterojunctions, with suitable band alignments, on the path from sourceto drain, offers possibilities to provide extra kinetic energy to thecharge carriers without having to apply large voltages. Increasing thekinetic energy of the charge carriers increases the likelihood ofachieving the scattering process that produces the cyclic excitationprocess (CEP).

FIG. 7C through FIG. 7F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 7A and FIG. 7B during operation of the transistor.For instance, FIG. 7C shows the band alignments for the bias conditionsat which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source) is >0 and VGS(voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 7D shows the bandalignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOSor VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 7E shows theband alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0 and VGS=0 forT-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 7Fshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

The first portion and/or the second portion can be constructed such thatthe valence band and/or the conduction band have a changing energylevel. For instance, the material and doping can also be selected toprovide a band diagram according to FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B. FIG. 8Arepresents the band diagram when the electronics are not applyingelectrical energy to the transistor. FIG. 8B is a more realistic versionof the valence and conduction bands shown FIG. 8A where the effects ofthe material interfaces and Fermi levels are evident. As is evident fromFIG. 8A, the valence band of the first portion decreases continuouslybetween the first semiconductor 12 and the second semiconductor 14. Theconduction band of the second portion decreases continuously between thefirst semiconductor 12 and the second semiconductor 14. The energy ofthe conduction bands decrease or remains constant at each interface whenmoving from the second semiconductor 14 to the first semiconductor 12and the energy of the valence bands increases or remains constant ateach interface when moving from the first semiconductor 12 to the secondsemiconductor 14. The decrease in the energy of the valence band and/orconduction band for the first portion and/or second portion can becaused by judicious selection of multiple materials for the differentportions of the device. These decreases may be advantageous because itoffers the possibility of providing extra kinetic energy to the chargecarriers without having to apply large voltages. Increasing the kineticenergy the charge carriers get increases the likelihood of achieving thescattering process that produces the cyclic excitation process (CEP).

FIG. 8C through FIG. 8F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 8A and FIG. 8B during operation of the transistor.For instance, FIG. 8C shows the band alignments for the bias conditionsat which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source) is >0 and VGS(voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 8D shows the bandalignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOSor VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 8E shows theband alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0 and VGS=0 forT-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 8Fshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

Although FIG. 8A illustrates the first portion and the second portion ashaving a valence band or a conduction band that has a substantiallyconstant energy level, the first portion and the second portion can beconstructed such that the valence band and the conduction band have achanging energy level. For instance, the material and doping can also beselected to provide a band diagram according to FIG. 9A and FIG. 9B.FIG. 9A represents the band diagram when the electronics are notapplying electrical energy to the transistor. FIG. 9B is a morerealistic version of the valence and conduction bands shown FIG. 9Awhere the effects of the material interfaces and Fermi levels areevident. As is evident from FIG. 9A, the valence band and the conductionband of the first portion decreases continuously between the firstsemiconductor 12 and the second semiconductor 14. The conduction bandand the valence band of the second portion decreases continuouslybetween the first semiconductor 12 and the second semiconductor 14. Theenergy of the conduction bands decrease or remains constant at eachinterface when moving from the second semiconductor 14 to the firstsemiconductor 12 and the energy of the valence bands increases orremains constant at each interface when moving from the firstsemiconductor 12 to the second semiconductor 14. The decrease in theenergy of the valence band and conduction band for the first portionand/or second portion can be caused by modulating the composition, hencethe band-gap, of the channel material, such that the valence band edgeof the channel material 88 matches (i.e., no barrier for holes) orsubstantially matches the valence band edge of semiconductor material14, and the conduction band edge of the channel material 90, matches(i.e., no barrier for electrons) or substantially matches the conductionband edge of semiconductor material 12. The modulation of thecomposition, and hence band-gap of material 88 and 90, insures that therelevant change carriers do not see potential barriers that could causea decrease in drive current.

FIG. 9C through FIG. 9F show qualitative band alignments for the tunneltransistor of FIG. 9A and FIG. 9B during operation of the transistor.For instance, FIG. 9C shows the band alignments for the bias conditionsat which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source) is >0 and VGS(voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for a T-NMOS, or VDS<0and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 9D shows the bandalignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 and VGS>0 for T-NMOSor VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 9E shows theband alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS>0 and VGS=0 forT-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 9Fshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

As noted above, the energy of the conduction bands can remain constantat each interface when moving from the second semiconductor 14 to thefirst semiconductor 12 and the energy of the valence bands can remainconstant at each interface when moving from the first semiconductor 12to the second semiconductor 14. For instance, the material and dopingcan also be selected to provide a band diagram according to FIG. 10A andFIG. 10B. FIG. 10A represents the band diagram when the electronics arenot applying electrical energy to the transistor. FIG. 10B is a morerealistic version of the valence and conduction bands shown FIG. 10Awhere the effects of the material interfaces and Fermi levels areevident. FIG. 10A is similar to FIG. 6A in that the energy level of thevalence band and conduction band of the third semiconductor 16 decreaseswhen moving from the second semiconductor 14 to the first semiconductor12; however, the energy of the valence band remains substantiallyconstant at the interface between the second semiconductor 14 and thethird semiconductor 16. Similarly, the energy of the conduction bandremains substantially constant at the interface between the thirdsemiconductor 16 and the second semiconductor 14. The matching of theenergy level of the valence band and/or conduction band at the interfaceof two materials can generally be achieved by judicious selection ofmultiple materials for the different portions of the device. Thesedecreases may be advantageous because it offers the possibility ofproviding extra kinetic energy to the charge carriers without having toapply large voltages. Increasing the kinetic energy the charge carriersget increases the likelihood of achieving the scattering process thatproduces the cyclic excitation process (CEP).

FIG. 10C through FIG. 10F show qualitative band alignments for thetunnel transistor of FIG. 10A and FIG. 10B during operation of thetransistor. For instance, FIG. 10C shows the band alignments for thebias conditions at which VDS (voltage of drain minus voltage of source)is >0 and VGS (voltage of gate minus voltage of source) is >0 for aT-NMOS, or VDS<0 and VGS=0 for T-PMOS. The band diagram of FIG. 10Dshows the band alignments for the bias conditions at which VDS=0 andVGS>0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS=0 for a T-PMOS. The band diagram ofFIG. 10E shows the band alignments for the bias conditions at whichVDS>0 and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS<0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS. The banddiagram of FIG. 10F shows the band alignments for the bias conditions atwhich VDS=0 and VGS=0 for T-NMOS or VDS=0 and VGS<0 for a T-PMOS.

Other transistor types can also include counterdoped junctions. Forinstance, a heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) typically includestwo pn junctions that share a common region. One of more of the pnjunctions can be a counterdoped heterojunction. In some instances, thejunction between the base and the collector of a heterojunction bipolartransistor (HBT) is a counterdoped heterojunction. In some instances,the junction between the base and the collector is a counterdopedheterojunction and the junction between the base and the collector is acounterdoped heterojunction. The one or more counterdopedheterojunctions included in the heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT)can each be constructed according to any one of the counterdopedheterojunctions disclosed in FIG. 1A through FIG. 1C.

FIG. 11A is a cross section of a portion of a device that includes aheterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT). The heterojunction bipolartransistor (HBT) includes a base 100 positioned between a collector 102and an emitter 104 such that charges flow between the collector 102 andthe emitter 104 through the base 100. The base 100 is in direct physicalcontact with both the collector 102 and the emitter 104. An emitterelectrical contact 106 is in electrical communication with the emitter104. A collector electrical contact 108 is in electrical communicationwith the collector 102. Base electrical contacts 110 are in electricalcommunication with the base 100. An insulating spacer 112 is locatedbetween each of the base electrical contacts 110 and the emitter 104 andcan provide electrical insulation between the base electrical contacts110 and the emitter 104. The emitter electrical contact 106, collectorelectrical contact 108, and base electrical contacts 110 can be used toapply electrical energy to the transistor during operation of thetransistor. A shallow trench isolation structure 114 can extend into thecollector 102.

Suitable materials for the spacer 112 include, but are not limited todielectric materials such as silicon oxide. Suitable materials for theshallow trench isolation structure 114 include, but are not limited to,dielectric materials such as silicon oxide. Suitable materials for thecollector 102 include, but are not limited to, silicon, SiGe and/orSiGeC alloys, Si—Ge—C superlattices. Suitable materials for the emitter104 include, but are not limited to, SiGe and/or SiGeC alloys, Si—Ge—Csuperlattices, mono-crystalline silicon, which can be epitaxially grownin the same growth sequence that forms the base 100, andpoly-crystalline silicon, typically deposited after the formation of amono-layer thick silicon-oxide on top of the base 100. Suitablematerials for the base 100 include, but are not limited to, SiGe and/orSiGeC alloys, Si—Ge—C superlattices.

When the transistor of FIG. 11A is a NPN heterojunction bipolartransistor (HBT), the emitter 104 can be doped so as to be an n-typeemitter, the base 100 can be doped so as to be a p-type base, and thecollector 102 can be doped so as to be an n-type collector. In theseinstances, the first semiconductor 12 of any one FIG. 1A through FIG. 1Ccan serve as the collector 102, the second semiconductor 14 of any oneof FIG. 1A through FIG. 1C can serve as the base 100. When thetransistor of FIG. 11A is a PNP heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT),the emitter 104 can be can be doped so as to be a p-type emitter, thebase 100 can be doped so as to be an n-type base, and the collector 102can be can be doped so as to be a p-type collector 102. In theseinstances, the base 100 can serve as the first semiconductor 12 of FIG.1A through FIG. 1C and the collector 102 can serve as the secondsemiconductor 14 of any one of FIG. 1A through FIG. 1C. In each of theseexamples, the pn junction between the base 100 and the emitter 104 canoptionally be one of the counterdoped heterojunctions disclosed above.For instance, when the first semiconductor 12 serves as the base 100, asecond semiconductor 14 from one of the counterdoped junctions disclosedabove can serve as the emitter. When the second semiconductor 14 servesas the base 100, a first semiconductor 12 from one of the countedopedjunctions disclosed above can serve as the emitter. Alternately, afourth semiconductor that is not included in one of the counterdopedjunctions disclosed above can serve as the emitter. The materials canoptionally be combined so the HBT is a Double Heterojunction BipolarTransistor (DHBT) or a single Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor (DHBT).

As noted above, the first semiconductor 12 and/or the secondsemiconductor 14 in a counterdoped junction can include or consist ofmultiple sub-layers that are each a semiconductor. FIG. 11B illustratesa portion of a device that includes the heterojunction bipolartransistor of FIG. 11A modified such that the collector 102 includesmultiple sub-layers. For instance, the device includes a substrate 120.A portion of the substrate 120 includes a first region 122 and a secondregion 124. At least a portion of the first region 122 is locatedbetween the base 100 and the second region 124. The first region 122 canbe in direct physical contact with the base 100. The first region 122,second region 124, and at least a portion of the substrate 120 are dopedwith the same polarity. The first region 122, second region 124, and atleast a portion of the substrate 120 act as the collector 102. When thecollector 102 is counterdoped, at least one component selected from thegroup consisting of the first region 122, the second region 124, and thesubstrate 120 can be counterdoped. In some instances, the second region124 is counterdoped. The concentration of dopant in the components thatare not counterdoped and the concentration of primary dopant in anycounterdoped components can each be greater than 5E18 cm⁻³, 1E19 cm⁻³,or 5E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than 1E21 cm⁻³, 5E20 cm⁻³, or 1E20 cm⁻³.

In FIG. 11B the different layers of the collector 102 are differentregions of the same substrate 120. When the substrate 120 includes asingle semiconductor, the different sub-layers of the collect caninclude the same semiconductor; however, different layers of the firstsemiconductor 12, second semiconductor 14, and/or third semiconductor 16can include different semiconductors. For instance, FIG. 11C illustratesa portion of a device that includes the heterojunction bipolartransistor of FIG. 11A modified such that the collector 102 includesmultiple sub-layers. For instance, the device includes a first sub-layer126, a second sub-layer 128, and a third sub-layer 130 on a substrate120. At least a portion of the substrate 120 serves as one of thesub-layers of the collector 102. The second sub-layer 128 is locatedbetween the first sub-layer 126 and the third sub-layer 130. At least aportion of the first sub-layer 126 is located between the base 100 andthe second sub-layer 128 and at least a portion of the third sub-layer130 is located between the substrate 120 and the second sub-layer 128.The first sub-layer 126 can be in direct physical contact with the base100 and the third sub-layer 130 can be in direct physical contact withthe base 100. The first sub-layer 126, second sub-layer 128, thirdsub-layer 130, and substrate 120 are doped with the same polarity. Thefirst sub-layer 126, second sub-layer 128, third sub-layer 130, andsubstrate 120 together act as the collector 102. When the collector 102is counterdoped, at least one component selected from the groupconsisting of the first sub-layer 126, second sub-layer 128, thirdsub-layer 130, and substrate 120 can be counterdoped. In some instances,the second sub-layer 128 is counterdoped. The concentration of dopant inthe components that are not counterdoped and the concentration ofprimary dopant in any counterdoped components can each be greater than5E18 cm⁻³, 1E19 cm⁻³, or 5E19 cm⁻³ and/or less than 1E21 cm⁻³, 5E20cm⁻³, or 1E20 cm⁻³.

Although FIG. 11B illustrates the different layers of the collector 102as different regions of the same substrate 120, the different regions ofthe substrate 120 can be different sub-layers as illustrated in FIG.11C. For instance, the device of FIG. 11B can be implemented using adevice having the first sub-layer 126 and the second sub-layer 128illustrated in FIG. 11C and excluding the third sub-layer 130. In such adevice, the function of the first region 122 is performed by the firstsub-layer 126 and the function of the second region 124 is performed bythe second sub-layer 128.

Heterojunction bipolar transistors are often operated by applying aforward bias to the junction between the emitter 104 and the base 100and a reverse bias to the junction of the base 100 and collector 102.Amplification of the input signal occurs in the junction between thebase 100 and collector 102. Using a counterdoped heterojunction for thejunction between the base 100 and collector 102 allows the amplificationof the collector current.

The transistors of FIG. 11A through FIG. 11C can be operated as a lightsensor. When the transistor is an NPN HBT and/or light sensorconstructed according to FIG. 11A; the base 100 and collector 102materials and doping can be selected to provide relative conduction andvalence bands such as are shown in FIG. 11D and FIG. 11E. FIG. 11Eillustrates the band diagram before electronics apply a bias to the HBTand FIG. 12C illustrates the band diagram while electronics operate theHBT so as to generate a light signal. In particular, the band alignmentsbetween base and collector can be such that the conduction band edge inthe collector is lower (negative ΔEc) than in the base, and that thevalence band edge in the base is higher (positive ΔEv) than in thecollector. As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 11D can begenerated using a collector 102 (first semiconductor 12) which maycomprise counterdoped n-type Si and/or counterdoped n-type SiGeC alloy,a base 100 (second semiconductor 14) that is a counterdoped p-type SiGeCalloy, and an emitter 104 which may comprise counterdoped n-type Siand/or counterdoped n-type SiGeC alloy.

When an HBT includes a counterdoped junction between the base 100 andcollector 102, the base 100 and collector materials and doping can beselected so as to provide the counterdoped heterojunction with an onsetvoltage greater than 0.1 V, 0.3V, 0.5V, or 0.8V and/or less than 3V, 2Vor 1V.

Examples of the semiconductors used for the base 100, emitter 104, andcollector 102 include a homogeneous material, random alloy, or anordered alloy generated through techniques such as epitaxial growth.However, one or more of the components selected from the groupconsisting of the base 100, emitter 104, and collector 102 can be asuperlattice. In some instances, at least the base 100 of a transistorincludes or consists of a superlattice. A suitable superlattice forinclusion in the base 100 of a transistor includes, but is not limitedto, an Si—Ge—C superlattice. Additional details regarding suitablesuperlattices are disclosed below. The superlattices can have lowerelectron and/or hole masses which can improve the electrical performanceof a transistor. Further, the superlattices can be used to achievevalence and/or conduction band offsets at the interfaces between theemitter 104 and base 100 or between base 100 and collector 102 that arenot possible to implement with the commonly used SiGe and/or SiGeCrandom alloys.

The superlattices can have direct band-gaps with large oscillatorstrengths. As a result, these materials are capable of efficient lightabsorption and light emission. Consequently, the inclusion of thesesuperlattices in the base 100 allows the illustrated transistor tooperate as a light source. For instance, any of the transistors of FIG.11A through FIG. 11C can include a superlattice with a direct bandgapand can be operated as a light source. Alternately, reflective layerscan be added to any of the transistors of FIG. 11A through FIG. 11C toprovide a resonant cavity that allows the light source to operate as alaser cavity. For instance, FIG. 12A illustrates the transistor of FIG.11B modified so as to operate as a laser that can be an HBT-laser or aDHBT laser. The laser includes a base reflector 132 and a secondreflector 134. The base reflector 132 and the second reflector 134 canbe configured to provide a Fabry-perot (FP) laser cavity. For instance,the base reflector 132 and/or the second reflector 134 is partiallytransmissive to provide an output from the laser cavity. When the basereflector 132 is partially transmissive the second reflector 134 can bepartially transmissive or fully reflective. When the second reflector134 is partially transmissive the base reflector 132 can be partiallytransmissive or fully reflective. Suitable materials for the basereflector 132 and the second reflector 134 include, but are not limitedto, Si, Ge, random alloys of Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) where x is greater than orequal to 0 and/or less than or equal to 1, and random alloys ofSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than 0 and less than or equalto 1 and y is greater than 0 and less than or equal to 0.25.

The use of the counterdoped junction in the light source amplifies theelectrical and optical signals when compared with prior HBT lasers.Additionally, the efficiency of the light output can be increased byincreasing the carrier's confinement in the base 100 wherere-combination occurs. As a result, the band offsets of the base 100 andthe collector 102 can be such that the electrons and holes are confinedin the base 100. This confinement can be achieved with a base materialthat is composed of a direct band-gap Si—Ge—C superlattice whoseconduction band edge is lower, and whose valence band edge is higher,than those of the emitter and collector regions (Type-I, or nested, bandalignment).

When the HBT and/or light source includes a collector 102 with threesub-layers such as is illustrated in FIG. 12A; the base 100, emitter104, and collector materials and doping can be selected to providerelative conduction and valence bands such as are shown in FIG. 12B andFIG. 12C. FIG. 12B illustrates the band diagram before electronics applya bias to the HBT and/or light source and FIG. 12C illustrates the banddiagram while electronics operate the HBT and/or light source so as togenerate a light signal. In these band diagrams, the conduction bandedge of base 100 is lower (negative ΔEc) than the conduction band edgesof the emitter 104 and collector 102, and the valence band edge of thebase 100 is higher (positive ΔEv) the valence band edge of the emitter104 and collector 102. The base 100 has a zero ΔEc with respect to theemitter 106 and the collector 126, and a positive ΔEv with respect toemitter 106 and collector 126, thereby enabling a smooth flow ofelectrons, from emitter 106 through the base 100 and into the collector126. The counterdoped regions inside the base 100 and inside thecollector 102, provide current gain through a phonon-assisted scatteringof electrons and holes with impurities. Such current gain does not existin conventional HBTs or photo-transistors.

When the HBT and/or light source includes a collector 102 with foursub-layers such as is illustrated in FIG. 11C; the base 100, emitter104, and collector materials and doping can be selected to providerelative conduction and valence bands such as are shown in FIG. 12D andFIG. 12E. FIG. 12D illustrates the band diagram before electronics applya bias to the light source and FIG. 12E illustrates the band diagramwhile electronics operate the light source so as to generate a lightsignal. In these band diagrams, the base 100 has a negative ΔEc withrespect to the emitter 106 and the collector 126, and a positive ΔEvwith respect to emitter 106 and collector 126, thereby confiningelectrons and holes in the base 100 and increasing the probability ofphoton emission from electron-hole recombination. The counterdopedregions inside the base 100 and inside the collector 126 provide currentgain through a phonon-assisted scattering of electrons and holes withimpurities. Such current gain does not exist in conventional HBTs or HBTlight-sources. As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 12B andFIG. 12C can be generated using a n-type silicon as the emitter 104, acounterdoped p-type superlattice as the base 100, n-type silicon as thefirst sub-layer 126, counterdoped n-type SiGeC as the second sub-layer128, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the third sub-layer 130 and n-typesilicon as the substrate 120. An example of a suitable superlattice is asuperlattice that includes silicon, germanium, and carbon. As is evidentfrom FIG. 12B, the conduction band of the third sub-layer 130 can havean energy level that increases between the second sub-layer 128 and thesubstrate 120. This gradient can be generated by varying the compositionof the SiGeC alloy. In some instances, the composition of the SiGeCalloy is altered such that near the substrate 120, the composition isalmost pure silicon in that the percentages of Ge and C are highest andtherefore the band-gap is smallest, near sub-layer 128.

The transistors and light sources of FIG. 11A through FIG. 12C includepn junctions at the junction between the emitter 104 and base 100 andalso at the junction between the collector 102 and base 100. However,one or more of these junctions can be a p-i-n junction. For instance,the transistors disclosed in the context of FIG. 11A through FIG. 12Ccan include a counterdoped p-i-n junction as the junction between theemitter 104 and the base 100. As an example, FIG. 13A illustrates aportion of a device having a light sensor that includes the transistorof FIG. 11C modified to include a counterdoped p-i-n junction as thejunction between the emitter 104 and the base 100. A third semiconductor16 is positioned between the base 100 and the emitter 104. The thirdsemiconductor 16 can be the intrinsic semiconductor of the counterdopedp-i-n junction. When the first semiconductor serves as the base 100, asecond semiconductor 14 from one of the counterdoped junctions disclosedabove can serve as the emitter. When the second semiconductor serves asthe base 100, a first semiconductor 12 from one of the countedopedjunctions disclosed above can serve as the emitter. Alternately, afourth semiconductor that is not included in one of the counterdopedjunctions disclosed above can serve as the emitter.

In some instances, the counterdoped p-i-n junction between the emitter104 and the base 100 is a heterojunction. When the device includes acounterdoped p-i-n junction between the emitter 104 and the base 100 anda counterdoped pn junction between the base 100 and the collector 102,the a counterdoped p-i-n junction can be configured to have an onsetvoltage greater than 0.3V, 0.5V, or 0.8V and/or less than 3V, 2V or 1Vand the counterdoped pn junction can be configured to have an onsetvoltage greater than 0.3V, 0.5V, or 0.8V and/or less than 3V, 2V or 1V.

When the HBT and/or light sensor is constructed according to FIG. 13A,the base 100, emitter 104, third semiconductor 16 and collectormaterials and doping can be selected to provide conduction and valencebands such as are shown in FIG. 13B and FIG. 13C. FIG. 13B illustratesthe band diagram before electronics apply a bias to the light sensor andFIG. 13C illustrates the band diagram while electronics operate thelight sensor so as to generate a photocurrent. As shown in FIG. 13C, theenergy of the conduction band for the third semiconductor 16 can exceedthe energy of the conduction band for the emitter 104 at the interfaceof the base 100 and third semiconductor 16. As a result, the thirdsemiconductor 16 can serve as a tunneling barrier between the base 100and the emitter 104. This tunneling barrier can accelerate injectedelectrons and improve the speed of travel of the electrons through thebase 100 toward the collector and accordingly enhance the performance ofthe HBT.

Additionally, in FIG. 13B and FIG. 13C, the tunnel barrier 16 has apositive ΔEc with respect to the emitter 106 and the base 100. Thetunneling barrier 16 has a negative ΔEv with respect to the base 100,and may have a zero or positive ΔEv with respect to emitter 106. Thetunnel injector can accelerate electrons through the base 100 and thusimprove performance of HBT. The counterdoped regions inside the base 100and inside the collector 102 provide current gain through aphonon-assisted scattering of electrons and holes with impurities. Suchcurrent gain does not exist in conventional HBTs or photo-transistors.As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 13C and FIG. 13D can begenerated using a n-type silicon as the emitter 104, undoped silicon asthe third semiconductor 16, a counterdoped p-type superlattice as thebase 100, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the first sub-layer 126, acounterdoped n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the second sub-layer 128, an n-typeSi—Ge—C alloy as the third sub-layer 130 and n-type silicon as thesubstrate 120. An example of a suitable superlattice is a superlatticethat includes silicon, germanium, and carbon. As is evident from FIG.13D, the conduction band of the first sub-layer 126 can have an energylevel that increases between base 100 and the second sub-layer 128.Additionally, the third sub-layer 130 has an energy level that increasesbetween the second sub-layer 128 and the substrate 120. This gradient inthe energy level of the first sub-layer 126 and the third sub-layer 130can be generated by varying the composition of the materials in theselayers. For instance, when one or more of these layers is an SiGeCalloy, the composition can be varied such that near the substrate 120,the composition is almost pure silicon (the percentages of Ge and C arehighest, and therefore the band-gap is smallest, near sub-layer 128).

The confinement in the base 100 can be further enhanced by providing abarrier between the base 100 and the collector 102 or between the base100 and a sub-layer of the collector 102 to provide a barrier in thevalence and and/or conduction band. For instance, the energy of theconduction band for the collector 102 can exceed the energy of theconduction band for the base 100 at the interface of the base 100 andthe collector 102. When this arrangement is achieved in the band diagramof FIG. 13B and FIG. 13C, the device operates as a light source withtunnel injection from emitter to base. As another example, the energy ofthe conduction band for the first region 122 of FIG. 11B or FIG. 12A orthe first sub-layer 126 of FIG. 11C or FIG. 13A can exceed the energy ofthe conduction band for the base 100 at the interface of the base 100and the collector 102. In these examples, a layer of the collector 102serves as a confinement barrier between the base 100 and the collector102. This confinement barrier can enhance the electron and holeconfinement in the base 100 such that there is an increased probabilityof recombination of electrons with holes in the base, from which photonsare emitted.

As an example, the base 100, emitter 104, third semiconductor 16 andcollector 102 materials and doping can be selected to provide conductionand valence bands such as are shown in FIG. 13D and FIG. 13E. FIG. 13Dillustrates the band diagram for a device such as is shown in FIG. 11Cor FIG. 13A before electronics apply a bias to the light sensor and FIG.13E illustrates the band diagram while electronics operate the lightsensor or transistor so as to generate a light signal. As is evidentfrom FIG. 13E, a tunneling barrier is present between the base 100 andthe collector 102 and also between the base 100 and the emitter 104. Forinstance, FIG. 13E shows the energy of the conduction band for the thirdsemiconductor 16 exceeding the energy of the conduction band for theemitter 104 at the interface of the emitter 104 and third semiconductor16 and also shows the energy of the conduction band for the firstsub-layer 126 exceeding the energy of the conduction band for the base100 at the interface of the base 100 and the collector 102.Additionally, the confinement of electrons and holes in the base 100 canbe accomplished when the base 100 has a negative ΔEc and a positive ΔEv,with respect to both the tunneling barrier 16 and collector 102. Animproved confinement of electrons and holes in the base 100 increasesthe probability of photon emission through electron-hole recombination.The counterdoped regions inside the base 100 and inside the collector126 provide current gain through a phonon-assisted scattering ofelectrons and holes with impurities. Such current gain does not exist inconventional HBTs or HBT light-sources. As an example, a band diagramaccording to FIG. 13D and FIG. 13E can be generated using a n-typesilicon as the emitter 104, undoped silicon as the third semiconductor16, a counterdoped p-type superlattice as the base 100, an n-typeSi—Ge—C alloy as the first sub-layer 126, a counterdoped n-type Si—Ge—Calloy as the second sub-layer 128, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the thirdsub-layer 130 and n-type silicon as the substrate 120. An example of asuitable superlattice is a superlattice that includes silicon,germanium, and carbon. As is evident from FIG. 13D, the conduction bandof the first sub-layer 126 can have an energy level that increasesbetween base 100 and the second sub-layer 128. Additionally, theconduction band of the third sub-layer 130 has an energy level thatincreases between the second sub-layer 128 and the substrate 120. Thisgradient in the energy level of the first sub-layer 126 and the thirdsub-layer 130 can be generated by varying the composition of thematerials in these layers. For instance, when one or more of theselayers is an SiGeC alloy, the composition can be varied such that nearthe substrate 120, the composition is almost pure silicon (thepercentages of Ge and C are highest, and therefore the band-gap issmallest, near sub-layer 128).

It is possible to suppress thermionic injection of carriers from theemitter 104 to the base 100 by constructing the device such that theemitter 104 injects charge into the base 100 via a tunneling processthat takes place across the band-gap from the emitter 104 to the base100. In these instances, the base 100 and the emitter 104 can be dopedwith the same polarity. This arrangement can provide injection from theemitter to the base in order s to suppress temperature-inducedthermionic injection (which is unwanted) from the emitter to the base.When the transistor or HBT has a p-type base 100, the emitter 104 can bedoped so as to be a p-type emitter 104 and when the transistor or lightsensor has an n-type base 100, the emitter 104 can be doped so as to bean n-type emitter. With this doping configuration, the potential barrierbetween the emitter 104 and the base 100 must be sufficiently large toprevent the free flow of majority carriers between emitter and base inorder to prevent a “short” between the emitter 104 and the base 100. Forinstance, when the device has a p-type base, the potential barrierbetween the emitter 104 and the base 100 must be large enough to preventholes from from flowing to and/or from the emitter. Alternately, whenthe device has an n-type base, the potential barrier between the emitter104 and the base 100 must large enough to prevent electrons from flowingto and/or from the emitter. The size of the potential barrier can bealtered by changing the composition of the emitter and the base at theinterface with the barrier.

As an example, the base 100, emitter 104, third semiconductor 16 andcollector materials and doping can be selected to provide conduction andvalence bands such as are shown in FIG. 13F and FIG. 13G. FIG. 13Fillustrates the band diagram for a device such as is shown in FIG. 11Cor FIG. 13A before electronics apply a bias to the HBT and FIG. 13Gillustrates the band diagram while electronics operate the light sensoror transistor so as to perform electronic amplification. FIG. 13F showsthat before bias is applied to the device, the energy level of theemitter 104 valence band is between the energy level of the base valenceband and the energy level of the base conduction band. However, as shownin FIG. 13G, when the electronics apply a potential applied to the base100 that is more positive than the potential applied to the emitter 104,the energy level of the emitter valence band moves toward the energylevel of the base conduction band. The potential difference (i.e.,applied voltage) can be increased until tunneling into the baseconduction band becomes significant while the potential barrier betweenthe emitter valence band and the base valence band prevents injectionfrom the base valence band into the emitter valence band. Theseconditions can be achieved when band offsets are such that the barrierin energy between the emitter valence band and the base conduction band,(labeled ΔBT in FIG. 13F) is small enough that injection by tunnelingcan be achieved with a small voltage across the third semiconductor 16.Additionally, the barrier in energy between the top of the base valencebands and the top of the third semiconductor 16 valence bands (labeledΔE_(VT) in FIG. 13F) is larger than ΔBT. In some instances, ΔE_(VT) ismore than 2, 3, or 4 times the value of ΔBT. Additionally, theband-to-band injection of electrons into the base 100 from the valenceband of the emitter 106, through a tunneling barrier 16 between emitter100 and base 100, can be accomplished through the band alignments shownin FIGS. 13F & 13G, in which the tunneling barrier 16 has a conductionband edge higher (positive ΔEc) than those of the emitter 106 and of thebase 100, and has a valence band edge lower (negative ΔEv) than those ofthe emitter 106 and of the base 100. This injection mechanism suppressesthermionic injection of electrons from emitter to base. The counterdopedregions inside the base 100 and inside the collector 102 provide currentgain through a phonon-assisted scattering of electrons and holes withimpurities. Such current gain does not exist in conventional HBTs orphoto-transistors. As an example, a band diagram according to FIG. 13Fand FIG. 13G can be generated using a p-type silicon as the emitter 104,undoped silicon as the third semiconductor 16, a counterdoped p-typesuperlattice as the base 100, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the firstsub-layer 126, a counterdoped n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the secondsub-layer 128, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the third sub-layer 130 andn-type silicon as the substrate 120. An example of a suitablesuperlattice is a superlattice that includes silicon, germanium, andcarbon. As is evident from FIG. 13F, the conduction band of the firstsub-layer 126 can have an energy level that increases between base 100and the second sub-layer 128. Additionally, the conduction band of thethird sub-layer 130 has an energy level that increases between thesecond sub-layer 128 and the substrate 120. This gradient in the energylevel of the first sub-layer 126 and the third sub-layer 130 can begenerated by varying the composition of the materials in these layers.For instance, when one or more of these layers is an SiGeC alloy, thecomposition can be varied such that near the substrate 120, thecomposition is almost pure silicon (the percentages of Ge and C arehighest to reduce the band-gap near the sub-layer 128).

Carrier confinement in the base 100 can also be enhanced through use ofa tunneling barrier between the base 100 and the collector 102 can beused in conjunction with tunneling across the band-gap from the emitter104 to the base 100 (i.e. from the valence band of the emitter 104 tothe conduction band of the base). For instance, the device of FIG. 13Fand FIG. 13G can be modified to include the tunneling barrier betweenthe base 100 and sub-layer of the collector 102 as disclosed in thecontext of FIG. 13D and FIG. 13E. As an example, the base 100, emitter104, third semiconductor 16 and collector materials and doping can beselected to provide relative conduction and valence bands such as areshown in FIG. 13H and FIG. 13I. FIG. 13H illustrates the band diagramfor a device such as is shown in FIG. 13A before electronics apply abias to the light sensor and FIG. 13I illustrates the band diagram whileelectronics operate the light sensor or transistor so as to generate alight signal. FIG. 13H shows that before bias is applied to the device,the energy level of the emitter valence band is between the energy levelof the base valence band and the energy level of the base conductionband. FIG. 361 shows the tunneling from the valence band of the emitter104 to the conduction band of the base 100. Additionally, a tunnelingbarrier is present between the base 100 and the collector 102. Forinstance, FIG. 13I shows the energy of the conduction band for the firstsub-layer 126 exceeding the energy of the conduction band for the base100 at the interface of the base 100 and the collector 102. The barrierin the conduction band from base to collector can provide confinement.Additionally, the band-to-band injection of electrons into the base 100from the valence band of the emitter 106, through a tunneling barrier 16between emitter 100 and base 100, can be accomplished through the bandalignments shown in FIGS. 13F & 13G, in which the tunneling barrier 16has a conduction band edge higher (positive ΔEc) than those of theemitter 106 and of the base 100, and has a valence band edge lower(negative ΔEv) than those of the emitter 106 and of the base 100.Concomitantly, the collector 102 has a higher conduction band edge(positive ΔEc) and a lower valence band edge (negative ΔEv) than thebase 100, such that electrons and holes are confined in the base 100,and therefore the probability of recombination with the emission of aphoton is enhanced. The counterdoped regions inside the base 100 andinside the collector 126, provide current gain through a phonon-assistedscattering of electrons and holes with impurities. Such current gaindoes not exist in conventional HBTs or HBT light-sources. As an example,a band diagram according to FIG. 13H and FIG. 13I can be generated usinga p-type silicon as the emitter 104, undoped silicon as the thirdsemiconductor 16, a counterdoped p-type superlattice as the base 100, ann-type Si—Ge—C alloy as the first sub-layer 126, a counterdoped n-typeSi—Ge—C alloy as the second sub-layer 128, an n-type Si—Ge—C alloy asthe third sub-layer 130 and n-type silicon as the substrate 120. Anexample of a suitable superlattice is a superlattice that includessilicon, germanium, and carbon. As is evident from FIG. 13H, theconduction band of the third sub-layer 130 has an energy level thatincreases between the second sub-layer 128 and the substrate 120. Thisgradient in the energy level of the first sub-layer 126 and the thirdsub-layer 130 can be generated by varying the composition of thematerials in these layers. For instance, when one or more of theselayers is an SiGeC alloy, the composition can be varied such that nearthe substrate 120, the composition is almost pure silicon in the thepercentages of Ge and C are increase to reduce the bandgap nearsub-layer 128.

The transistors disclosed in the context of FIG. 4A through FIG. 13I aregenerally treated as NPN transistors for the purposes of simplifyingthis disclosure. However, the doping polarities can be reversed to as toprovide PNP transistors as is well known in the art. Additionally, thefirst semiconductor and the second semiconductor are generally disclosedas both being counterdoped; however, as noted in the context of FIG. 1and elsewhere in this specification, the first semiconductor and thesecond semiconductor need not both be doped in order to achieveamplification through the phonon assisted mechanism. Accordingly, insome instances of the above devices, the first semiconductor iscounterdoped without counterdoping of the second semiconductor or thesecond semiconductor is counterdoped without counterdoping of the firstsemiconductor.

Suitable first semiconductors 12 for use in the counterdoped junctionsinclude, but are not limited to, Si, Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), Si_(1-y)C_(y), andSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y). Suitable second semiconductors 14 for use in thecounterdoped junctions include, but are not limited to, Si,Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), Si_(1-y)C_(y), and Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y). Suitable thirdsemiconductors 16 for use in the counterdoped junctions include, but arenot limited to, Si, Si_(1-x)Ge_(x), Si_(1-y)C_(y), andSi_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y). Suitable n-type dopants for use in thecounterdoped junctions include, but are not limited to, P, As, and Sb.Suitable p-type dopants for use in the counterdoped junctions include,but are not limited to, B, Ga, and In.

As noted above, the third semiconductor 16 can include or consist of asuperlattice such as the SiGeC superlattices disclosed above as well asother superlattices disclosed above. Additionally or alternately, thedevice can include a light absorbing medium, gain medium, light sensor,or light source that includes or consists of a superlattice. Thesesuperlattices can include cells that are repeated multiple times so asto form the superlattice. Each superlattice cell has multiple atomicplanes that are parallel to one another. For instance, FIG. 14 is across section of a superlattice system. The superlattice system includesa superlattice 150 positioned on a substrate 152. The superlattice 150includes a variety of superlattice cells 154. Each superlattice cell 154is the smallest unit that can be repeated in order to create thesuperlattice 150. Each of the cells 154 includes atoms arranged inmultiple atomic planes 156 that are each parallel or substantiallyparallel to a surface of the substrate 152 on which the superlattice 150is positioned and parallel or substantially parallel to each other.

The composition of a superlattice cell 154 can be expressed using thefollowing notation (CC₁)_(ap1)-(CC₂)_(ap2) . . . -(CC_(n))_(apn) whereCC_(n) represents the chemical composition of atomic plane n and apnrepresents the number of atomic planes 156 having the chemicalcomposition represented by CC_(n). When apn is greater than 1, theassociated atomic planes 156 are immediately adjacent to one another inthe superlattice cell 154. For instance, when apn is greater than 1, theassociated atomic planes 156 can be covalently bonded to one another. Atleast two of the atomic planes 156 in the superlattice cell 154 havedifferent chemical compositions.

In some instances, at least two of the atomic planes in the superlatticecell have different chemical compositions. One or more of the atomicplanes in the superlattice cell can include carbon. One or more of theone or more atomic planes that include carbon can each also includes 10%or more of substitutional carbon. In some instances, the superlatticecell includes a total number of atomic planes that is less than or equalto 40, 20, 10, or 5. In some instances, one or more of the atomic planesin the superlattice cell include tin and/or lead. The superlattice canhave one, two, three or more features selected from the group consistingof at least two of the atomic planes in the superlattice cell havingdifferent chemical compositions, one or more of the atomic planes in thesuperlattice cell including carbon, one or more of the one or moreatomic planes including 10% or more of substitutional carbon, thesuperlattice cell includes a total number of atomic planes that is lessthan or equal to 40, 10, or 5 and one or more of the atomic planes inthe superlattice cell include tin and/or lead.

In some instances, at least one of the atomic planes has the chemicalcomposition for a material that has a valence band maximum at the Zpoint (and/or its equivalent Y) of the Brillouin Zone. For instance, atleast one of the atomic planes has the chemical composition for amaterial that has a valence band maximum at a point of the BrillouinZone selected from the group consisting of the Z point and the Y point.In one example, the at least one atomic plane has a chemical compositionrepresented by Si₂Sn₂C.

In some instances, a superlattice cell is repeated multiple times so asto form a superlattice. Each superlattice cell has multiple atomicplanes that are parallel to one another. The superlattice has aconduction band minimum at the K or K′ point of the Brillouin Zone. Insome instances, the superlattice is represented by (Si₅)₄—(Si₄C)₄.

In some instances, one or more atomic planes included in thesuperlattice is an ordered atomic plane that has a chemical compositionselected from a group consisting of Si₄C, Ge₄C, Sn₄C, Si₄Ge, Ge₄Si,Si₆C₂, Ge₆C₂, Sn₆C₂, SiGe₃C, Si₂Ge₂C, Si₃GeC, SiSn₃C, Si₂Sn₂C, Si₃SnC,GeSn₃C, Ge₂Sn₂C and Ge₃SnC. When a plane is ordered, each of thecorresponding lattice points in different superlattice cells is occupiedby an atom of the same element. In some instances, one or more atomicplanes included in the superlattice is not ordered and has a chemicalcomposition selected from a group consisting of Si_(1-x)Ge_(x) where xis greater than or equal to 0 and/or less than or equal to 1,Si_(1-y)C_(y) where y is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.1 and/or lessthan or equal to 0.25, Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than orequal to 0 or 0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and y is greater thanor equal to 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, Si_(1-z)Sn_(z)where z is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equalto 0.1, Ge_(1-z)Sn_(z) where z is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.05, C_(1-z)Sn_(z) where z is greater thanor equal to zero and/or less than 1 and in one example z is 0.20 or0.25, Si_(1-x-z)Ge_(x)Sn_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0 or0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and z is greater than or equal to 0or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1, Si_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn_(z) where yis greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25and z is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to0.25, Ge_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn_(z) where y is greater than or equal to 0 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Si_(1-x-y-z)Ge_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0 or0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than or equal to 0or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equalto 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, Si_(1-x)Pb_(x) where xis greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to0.1, Si_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than or equal to 0.001 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equal to0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Si_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0.001or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.85 or 0.95,Si_(1-x-y-z-t)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z)Sn_(t) where x is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.85or 0.95 and t is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less thanor equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-x)Pb_(x) where x is greater than or equal to0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1, Ge_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y)where x is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or lessthan or equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greaterthan or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25and z is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.25.

In some instances, one or more of the one or more atomic planes thatinclude carbon is ordered and has a chemical composition selected from agroup consisting of Si₄C, Ge₄C, Sn₄C, Si₆C₂, Ge₆C₂, Sn₆C₂, SiGe₃C,Si₂Ge₂C, Si₃GeC, SiSn₃C, Si₂Sn₂C, Si₃SnC, GeSn₃C, Ge₂Sn₂C and Ge₃SnC. Insome instances, one or more atomic planes that include carbon is notordered and has a chemical composition selected from a group consistingof Si_(1-y)C_(y) where y is greater than 0 or 0.1 and/or less than orequal to 0.25, Si_(1-x-y)Ge_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than or equal to0 or 0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.25, C_(1-z)Sn, where z is greater than orequal to zero and less than 1 and in one example z is 0.20 or 0.25,Si_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn_(z) where y is greater than 0 or 0.01 and/or less thanor equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01 and/or lessthan or equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn_(z) where y is greater than 0or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equalto 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, andSi_(1-x-y-z)Ge_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0 or0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than 0 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to 0 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, Si_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y) where x isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1and y is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.25, Si_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z) where x is greater than orequal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greaterthan 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/orless than or equal to 0.85 or 0.95,Si_(1-x-y-z-t)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z)Sn_(t) where x is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to0.25 and z is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.85 or 0.95 and t is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y) where x isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1and y is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.25, Ge_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greater than orequal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greaterthan 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/orless than or equal to 0.25.

In some instances, one or more of the one or more atomic planes thatinclude tin each is ordered and has a chemical composition selected froma group consisting of Sn₄C, Sn₆C₂, SiSn₃C, Si₂Sn₂C, Si₃SnC, GeSn₃C,Ge₂Sn₂C, and Ge₃SnC. In some instances, one or more of the one or moreatomic planes that include tin is not ordered and has a chemicalcomposition selected from a group consisting of Si_(1-z)Sn_(z) where zis greater than 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1,Ge_(1-z)Sn_(z) where z is greater than 0 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.05, C_(1-z)Sn_(z) where z is greater than zero and/or lessthan 1 and in one example z is 0.20 or 0.25, Si_(1-x-z)Ge_(x)Sn_(z)where x is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.1 and/or less than or equalto 1 and z is greater than 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1,Si_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn, where y is greater than or equal to 0 or 0.01 and/orless than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than 0 or 0.01 and/or lessthan or equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-y-z)C_(y)Sn_(z) where y is greater than orequal to 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greaterthan 0 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Si_(1-x-y-z)Ge_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0 or0.1 and/or less than or equal to 1 and y is greater than or equal to 0or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than 0 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Si_(1-x-y-z-t)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z)Sn_(t) where x is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.85or 0.95 and t is greater than 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, andSi_(1-x-y-z-t)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z)Sn_(t) where x is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.85or 0.95 and t is greater than 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, andGe_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z) where x is greater than or equal to 0.001or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25.

In some instances, one or more of the one or more atomic planes thatinclude lead is not ordered and has a chemical composition selected froma group consisting of Si_(1-x)Pb_(x) where x is greater than 0 orgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1,Si_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y) where x is greater than 0 or greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Si_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z) where x is greater 0 or greater than thanor equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y isgreater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25and z is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than orequal to 0.85 or 0.95, Si_(1-x-y-z-t)Pb_(x)C_(y)Ge_(z)Sn_(t) where x isgreater than 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or lessthan or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equal to0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.85 or 0.95 and t is greaterthan or equal to 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25,Ge_(1-x)Pb_(x) where x is greater than 0 or greater than or equal to0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.1, Ge_(1-x-y)Pb_(x)C_(y)where x is greater than 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equal to 0.001or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25, Ge_(1-x-y-z)Pb_(x)C_(y)Sn_(z)where x is greater than 0 or greater than or equal to 0.001 or 0.01and/or less than or equal to 0.1 and y is greater than or equal to 0.001or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25 and z is greater than or equalto 0.001 or 0.01 and/or less than or equal to 0.25.

The above superlattice materials can have direct bandgaps in ranges thatare suitable for use in the above applications. It is generallydesirable to grow these superlattices on materials such as silicon dueto its common use in CMOS technology and/or due to the low defect levelspresent in silicon. When superlattices are grown on a surface withdefects, these defects often propagate into the superlattice itself.However, the performance level of superlattices generally declines asthe defect level increases. When prior superlattices were grown onsilicon substrates, relaxed buffer layers, with lattice constants largerthan the lattice constant for silicon, were generally needed between thesubstrate and the superlattice in order to achieve direct bandgaps andto achieve at least partial strain-compensation. These buffer layers arean additional source of defects. Many of the disclosed superlatticematerials do not require these buffer layers when grown on substratessuch as silicon. Accordingly these superlattices are more likely to havereduced defect levels. Further, the simulation results indicate that thedisclosed superlattice materials can be used to engineer superlatticeshaving particular bandgap features.

Further, one or more planes of the disclosed superlattices can be amaterial that has a valence band maximum at the Z point (and/or itsequivalent Y) of the Brillouin Zone. In some instances, these materialsare direct bandgap materials. The inclusion of these materials in thedisclosed superlattices can provide vertical transitions (in k-space) inregions of the Brillouin Zone other than the gamma point and verticaltransitions in (k-space) across heterojunctions, in which one materialhas the conduction band minimum at the Z point (and/or its equivalent Y)and other has the valence band maximum also Z point (and/or itsequivalent Y), but in which neither of these materials is necessarily adirect bandgap material.

Additional information on the above superlattices can be found in U.S.Patent Application Ser. No. 61/895,971, filed on Oct. 25, 2013, entitled“Superlattice Materials and Applications” and incorporated herein in itsentirety and also in PCT Patent Application PCT/US2014/057066,publication number WO 2105042610, filed on Sep. 23, 2014, entitled“Superlattice Materials and Applications,” and incorporated herein inits entirety. In some instances, Si—Ge—C in the the above descriptioninclude superalltices that include, consist of or consist essentially ofsilicon, germanium, and carbon and are constructed as disclosed in U.S.Patent Application Ser. No. 61/895,971.

As is disclosed in the context of FIG. 3B, the counterdoping of one ormore of the semiconductors produces donor states and/or acceptor statesin the semiconductor. These donor states and/or acceptor states are notillustrated in many of the above band energy diagram in order tosimplify the illustrations.

Other embodiments, combinations and modifications of this invention willoccur readily to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of theseteachings. Therefore, this invention is to be limited only by thefollowing claims, which include all such embodiments and modificationswhen viewed in conjunction with the above specification and accompanyingdrawings.

The invention claimed is:
 1. An electrical device, comprising: acounterdoped heterojunction selected from a group consisting of a pnjunction or a p-i-n junction, the counterdoped heterojunction junctionincluding a first semiconductor doped with an n-type primary dopant anda second semiconductor doped with a p-type primary dopant; a firstcounterdoped component selected from a group consisting of the firstsemiconductor and the second semiconductor being counterdoped, the firstcounterdoped component being doped with one or more counterdopants thatare of a polarity that is the opposite to the polarity of the primarydopant included in the first counterdoped component; a level of then-type primary dopant, p-type primary dopant, and the one or morecounterdopants being such that the counterdoped heterojunction providesamplification by a phonon assisted mechanism and the amplification hasan onset voltage less than 1 V; and a total concentration of the primarydopant in the first counterdoped component is more than the Density ofStates of the semiconductor included in the first counterdoped componentfor either the conduction band or the valence band of the semiconductorincluded in the first counterdoped component, and the semiconductorincluded in the first counterdoped component being selected from thegroup consisting of the first semiconductor and the secondsemiconductor.
 2. The device of claim 1, wherein the onset voltage isgreater than 0.1 V and less than 0.9 V.
 3. The device of claim 1,wherein the first semiconductor and the second semiconductor arecounterdoped.
 4. The device of claim 1, wherein a total concentration ofthe one or more counterdopants in the first counterdoped component ismore than 10% and less than 50% of the total percentage of dopant in thefirst counterdoped component.
 5. The device of claim 4, wherein thetotal concentration of the one or more counterdopants in the firstcounterdoped component is more than 2.0E17 cm ⁻³.
 6. The device of claim1, further comprising a second counterdoped component, the secondcounterdoped component being the first semiconductor when the firstcounterdoped component is the second semiconductor, and the secondcounterdoped component being the second semiconductor when the firstcounterdoped component is the first semiconductor.
 7. The device ofclaim 6, wherein a total concentration of the one or more counterdopantsin the first counterdoped component is more than 1% and less than 50% ofthe total percentage of dopant in the first counterdoped component; andthe total concentration of the one or more counterdopants in the secondcounterdoped component is more than 10% and less than 50% of the totalpercentage of dopant in the first counterdoped component.
 8. The deviceof claim 1, wherein the counterdoped heterojunction is a pn junction. 9.The device of claim 1, wherein the counterdoped heterojunction is ap-i-n junction that includes a third semiconductor between the firstsemiconductor and the second semiconductor, the third semiconductorbeing an intrinsic semiconductor, and the third semiconductor being asuperlattice.
 10. The device of claim 9, wherein the superlatticeincludes superlattice cells repeated multiple times so as to form thesuperlattice, each superlattice cell having multiple ordered atomicplanes that are parallel to one another, at least two of the atomicplanes in the superlattice cell have different chemical compositions andone or more of the atomic planes in the superlattice cell includescarbon.
 11. The device of claim 10, wherein one or more of the one ormore atomic planes that include carbon each includes more than 10%substitutional carbon.
 12. The device of claim 9, wherein thesuperlattice includes superlattice cells repeated multiple times so asto form the superlattice, each superlattice cell having multiple orderedatomic planes that are parallel to one another, at least two of theatomic planes in the superlattice cell have different chemicalcompositions and one or more of the atomic planes in the superlatticecell includes lead.
 13. The device of claim 12, wherein one or more ofthe one or more atomic planes that include lead each includes more than10% substitutional lead.
 14. The device of claim 9, wherein thesuperlattice includes superlattice cells repeated multiple times so asto form the superlattice, each superlattice cell having multiple orderedatomic planes that are parallel to one another, at least two of theatomic planes in the superlattice cell have different chemicalcompositions and one or more of the atomic planes in the superlatticecell includes tin.
 15. The device of claim 14, wherein one or more ofthe one or more atomic planes that include tin each includes more than10% substitutional tin.
 16. The device of claim 11, wherein the totalnumber of atomic planes included in the superlattice is less than orequal to
 20. 17. The device of claim 1, wherein the counterdopedheterojunction is included in a photodiode.
 18. The device of claim 1,wherein the counterdoped heterojunction is included in a transistor. 19.The device of claim 18, wherein the transistor is a tunnel transistorthat includes a source, drain, and channel.
 20. The device of claim 19,wherein the first semiconductor is the source and the secondsemiconductor is the drain.
 21. The device of claim 18, wherein thetransistor is a heterojunction bipolar transistor that includes a basebetween an emitter and a collector.
 22. The device of claim 21, whereinthe counterdoped heterojunction is a junction between the base and thecollector.
 23. The device of claim 22, wherein the counterdopedheterojunction is a pn junction, and further comprising: a p-i-nheterojunction between the base and the emitter.
 24. The device of claim1, wherein the counterdoped heterojunction is included in a lasercavity.